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Batteries MDPI, Basel (2026)

23/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression”

by Le Duc Tai and Moo-Yeon Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, LIBs are highly sensitive to temperature fluctuations, significantly affecting their performance, lifespan, and safety. One of the most critical threats to the safe operation of LIBs is thermal runaway (TR), an uncontrollable exothermic process that can lead to catastrophic failure under abusive conditions. Moreover, thermal runaway propagation (TRP) can rapidly spread failures across battery cells, intensifying safety threats. To address these challenges, developing advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) is essential to ensure optimal temperature control and suppress TR and TRP within LIB modules. This review systematically evaluates advanced cooling strategies, including indirect liquid cooling, water mist cooling, immersion cooling, phase change material (PCM) cooling, and hybrid cooling based on the latest studies published between 2020 and 2025. The review highlights their mechanisms, effectiveness, and practical considerations for preventing TR initiation and suppressing TRP in battery modules. Finally, key findings and future directions for designing next-generation BTMS are proposed, contributing valuable insights for enhancing the safety and reliability of LIB applications.

Keywords:
batteries; electric vehicles; thermal management; thermal runaway

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency.

22/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Comprehensive Study of the Gas Volume and Composition Generated by 5 Ah Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) Li-Ion Pouch Cells Through Different Failure Mechanisms at Varying States of Charge”

by Gemma E. Howard, Katie C. Abbott, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard and Daniel Howard

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050197

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail pe*******on. Tests were conducted in air and N2 atmospheres. Additional external heat tests were performed on cells at 5, 25, 50, and 75% SoC and on two, three, and four cell blocks. Gas volumes were calculated, and the gas composition was given for H2, CO, CO2, C2H4, C2H6, CH4, C3H6, and C3H8. For tests under an air atmosphere at 100% SoC, the volume of gas varied between abuse methods: 3.9 L (external heat), 6.4 L (overcharge), and 8.9 L (nail pe*******on). The gas composition was found to predominantly contain H2, CO2, and CO for all abuse methods; however, higher concentrations of H2 and CO were present in tests performed under N2. External heat tests at different SoCs showed that the gas volume decreased with SoC. Overall, the type of abuse method can have a large effect on the gas volume and composition produced by cell failure.

Keywords:
Li-ion; pouch cell; nickel manganese cobalt oxide; external heat; overcharge; nail pe*******on; gas volume; gas composition

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail pe*******on. Tests were conducted in air a...

21/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Electrochemical-Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects”

by Milad Tulabi and Roberto Bubbico

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050178

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or thermal abuse, which can lead to catastrophic failures. While most TR models focus on fresh cells, aging significantly impacts battery behavior and safety. This study develops an electrochemical–thermal coupled model that incorporates aging effects to better predict thermal behavior and TR initiation in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. The model is validated against experimental data for fresh NMC and aged NCA cells, and statistical analysis is conducted to identify key factors influencing TR (p < 0.05). A full factorial design evaluates the effects of internal resistance (10, 20, 30, and 40 mΩ), capacity (1, 2, 3, and 5 Ah), and current rate (1C, 3C, 6C, and 8C) on temperature evolution. Additionally, a machine learning algorithm (logistic regression) is employed to identify an internal resistance threshold, beyond which thermal runaway (TR) becomes highly probable, and to predict TR probability based on key battery parameters. The model achieved a high prediction accuracy of 95% on the test dataset. Results indicate that aging affects thermal stability in complex ways. The increased internal resistance exacerbates heating rates, while capacity fade reduces stored energy, mitigating TR risk. These findings provide a validated framework for enhancing battery thermal management and predictive safety mechanisms, which contributed to the development of safer, more reliable Li-ion energy storage systems.

Keywords:
thermal runaway; Li-ion battery; modeling; aging; battery safety

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by me...

20/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Gas Generation in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Mechanisms, Failure Pathways, and Thermal Safety Implications”

by Tianyu Gong, Xuzhi Duan, Yan Shan and Lang Huang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040152
Gas evolution in lithium-ion batteries represents a pivotal yet underaddressed concern, significantly compromising long-term cyclability and safety through complex interfacial dynamics and material degradation across both normal operation and extreme thermal scenarios. While extensive research has focused on isolated gas generation mechanisms in specific components, critical knowledge gaps persist in understanding cross-component interactions and the cascading failure pathways it induced. This review systematically decouples gas generation mechanisms at cathodes (e.g., lattice oxygen-driven CO2/CO in high-nickel layered oxides), anodes (e.g., stress-triggered solvent reduction in silicon composites), electrolytes (solvent decomposition), and auxiliary materials (binder/separator degradation), while uniquely establishing their synergistic impacts on battery stability. Distinct from prior modular analyses, we emphasize that: (1) emerging systems exhibit fundamentally different gas evolution thermodynamics compared to conventional materials, exemplified by sulfide solid electrolytes releasing H2S/SO2 via unique anionic redox pathways; (2) gas crosstalk between components creates compounding risks—retained gases induce electrolyte dry-out and ion transport barriers during cycling, while combustible gas–O2 mixtures accelerate thermal runaway through chain reactions. This review proposes three key strategies to suppress gas generation: (1) oxygen lattice stabilization via dopant engineering, (2) solvent decomposition mitigation through tailored interphases engineering, and (3) gas-selective adaptive separator development. Furthermore, it establishes a multiscale design framework spanning atomic defect control to pack-level thermal management, providing actionable guidelines for battery engineering. By correlating early gas detection metrics with degradation patterns, the work enables predictive safety systems and standardized protocols, directly guiding the development of reliable high-energy batteries for electric vehicles and grid storage.

Keywords:
gas generation; lithium-ion batteries; thermal runaway; electrochemical cycling; interfacial reactions

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Gas evolution in lithium-ion batteries represents a pivotal yet underaddressed concern, significantly compromising long-term cyclability and safety through complex interfacial dynamics and material degradation across both normal operation and extreme thermal scenarios. While extensive research has f...

17/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Carbonaceous Materials as Anodes for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries”

by Koorosh Nikgoftar, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040123

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Carbonaceous materials are the most widespread anode material due to their fascinating features, such as high theoretical capacity, high electrical conductivity, and excellent structural stability. Additionally, these materials’ abundance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness have emphasized the need for further investigation and development. Among these carbon-based materials, graphite (both artificial and natural) stands out as the most ubiquitous anode material due to its layered crystal structure, high mechanical strength, long cycle life, and excellent safety profile, making it ideal for intercalation with lithium and sodium. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted to enhance the efficiency of anodes and, ultimately, the overall performance of batteries. In this review, the role of carbonaceous materials in anodes for lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries was comprehensively investigated, focusing on advancements in synthesizing and optimizing artificial graphite. Furthermore, the intercalation mechanism and the factors influencing the electrochemical properties of both LIBs and SIBs were extensively discussed. This work also provides a holistic perspective on the differences between these two types of batteries, highlighting their cost, safety applications, and future potential advancement.

Keywords:
lithium-ion batteries; sodium-ion batteries; anode; natural graphite; artificial graphite; hard/soft carbon

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Ca...

16/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Exploiting Artificial Neural Networks for the State of Charge Estimation in EV/HV Battery Systems: A Review”

by Pierpaolo Dini and Davide Paolini

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030107
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) improve battery management in electric vehicles (EVs) by enhancing the safety, durability, and reliability of electrochemical batteries, particularly through improvements in the State of Charge (SOC) estimation. EV batteries operate under demanding conditions, which can affect performance and, in extreme cases, lead to critical failures such as thermal runaway—an exothermic chain reaction that may result in overheating, fires, and even explosions. Addressing these risks requires advanced diagnostic and management strategies, and machine learning presents a powerful solution due to its ability to adapt across multiple facets of battery management. The versatility of ML enables its application to material discovery, model development, quality control, real-time monitoring, charge optimization, and fault detection, positioning it as an essential technology for modern battery management systems. Specifically, ANN models excel at detecting subtle, complex patterns that reflect battery health and performance, crucial for accurate SOC estimation. The effectiveness of ML applications in this domain, however, is highly dependent on the selection of quality datasets, relevant features, and suitable algorithms. Advanced techniques such as active learning are being explored to enhance ANN model performance by improving the models’ responsiveness to diverse and nuanced battery behavior. This compact survey consolidates recent advances in machine learning for SOC estimation, analyzing the current state of the field and highlighting the challenges and opportunities that remain. By structuring insights from the extensive literature, this paper aims to establish ANNs as a foundational tool in next-generation battery management systems, ultimately supporting safer and more efficient EVs through real-time fault detection, accurate SOC estimation, and robust safety protocols. Future research directions include refining dataset quality, optimizing algorithm selection, and enhancing diagnostic precision, thereby broadening ANNs’ role in ensuring reliable battery management in electric vehicles.

Keywords:
battery system; data-driven strategy; Smart Industry 5.0; electric vehicles; Artifical Neural Networks (ANNs); SOC monitoring

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) improve battery management in electric vehicles (EVs) by enhancing the safety, durability, and reliability of electrochemical batteries, particularly through improvements in the State of Charge (SOC) estimation. EV batteries operate under demanding conditions, which...

15/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries”

by Zakaria Siddiquee, Hyunsang Lee, Weinan Xu, Thein Kyu and Antal Jákli

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030106

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic alignment of phase-segregated, ordered nanostructures in iLCEs serves as an ion pathway, which can be solidified through photopolymerization to create ion-conductive solid-state polymer lithium batteries (SSPLBs) with high ionic conductivity (1.76 × 10−3 S cm−1 at 30 °C), and a high (0.61) transference number. Additionally, the rubbery state ensures good interfacial contact with electrodes that inhibits lithium dendrite formation. Furthermore, in contrast to liquid electrolytes, the iLCE shrinks upon heating, thus preventing any overheating-related explosions. The Li/LiFePO4 (LFP) cells fabricated using iLCE-based solid electrolytes show excellent cycling stability with a discharge capacity of ~124 mAh g−1 and a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. These results are promising for the practical application of iLCE-based SSPLBs.

Keywords:

lithium-battery; solid-state battery; polymer electrolyte; liquid crystal; ionic liquid crystal elastomer; plasticizer; alignment

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural or...

14/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Exploring the Solubility of Ethylene Carbonate in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Pathway for Sustainable Electrolyte Recycling from Li-Ion Batteries”

by Nils Zachmann, Claude Cicconardi and Burçak Ebin

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030098

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO2 extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute solubility is essential. In this work, the solubility of ethylene carbonate at different pressure (80–160 bar) and temperature (40 °C, and 60 °C) conditions is studied. It is shown that the solubility of ethylene carbonate increased with pressure at both temperatures, ranging from 0.24 to 8.35 g/kg CO2. The retrieved solubility data were fitted using the Chrastil model, and the average equilibrium association number was determined to be 4.46 and 4.02 at 40 °C and 60 °C, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis of the collected ethylene carbonate indicated that the crystal morphology and structure remained unchanged. A proof-of-principle experiment showed that EC can be successfully extracted from Li-ion battery waste at 140 bar and 40 °C.

Keywords:

supercritical CO2 extraction; solubility; Li-ion battery electrolyte; ethylene carbonate

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt.

13/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Solid-State Lithium Batteries: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives”

by Subin Antony Jose, Amethyst Gallant, Pedro Lechuga Gomez, Zacary Jaggers, Evan Johansson, Zachary Lapierre and Pradeep L. Menezes

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030090

Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. By utilizing a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid, these batteries offer the potential for enhanced safety, higher energy density, and longer life cycles. The solid electrolyte typically consists of a polymer matrix integrated with ceramic fillers, which can significantly boost ionic conductivity. Research efforts are currently focused on advancing materials for the battery’s three primary components: the electrolyte, anode, and cathode. Furthermore, innovative strategies are being developed to optimize the interfaces between these components, addressing key challenges in performance and durability. Cutting-edge manufacturing techniques are also being explored to improve production efficiency and reduce costs. With continued advancements, solid-state lithium-ion batteries are poised to become integral to next-generation technologies, including electric vehicles and wearable electronics.

Keywords:

Li-ion batteries; solid-state batteries; electrolyte; anode; cathode; dendrite formation

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. By utilizing a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid, these batteries offer the potential for enhanced safety, higher energy density, and longer life cycles. The solid electrolyte...

10/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Review on Advancements in Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Purification, and Multifaceted Applications”

by Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Ali Darwiche, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020071

Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (C**s) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. C**s have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and biomedical engineering. Their applications range from nanoelectronics, robust nanocomposites, and energy storage devices to innovative materials, sensors, conducting polymers, field emission sources, and Li-ion batteries. Furthermore, C**s have found critical roles in biosensing, water purification, bone scaffolding, and targeted gene and drug delivery. The chemical reactivity and functional versatility of C**s are profoundly influenced by their structural and physicochemical properties, such as surface area, surface charge, size distribution, surface chemistry, and purity. This review comprehensively explores the current state of CNT research, focusing on widely used synthesis, purification, and characterization techniques alongside emerging applications. By highlighting recent advancements and addressing unresolved challenges, it aims to present a novel perspective on the transformative potential of C**s, fostering innovation across diverse scientific and technological fields.

Keywords:
carbon nanotubes; LIBs; synthesis; purification; diverse applications

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (C**s) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. C**s have transformed numerous scientific domains, inc...

09/04/2026

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Heteroatom Doping Strategy of Advanced Carbon for Alkali Metal-Ion Capacitors”

by Ti Yin, Yaqin Guo, Xing Huang, Xinya Yang, Leixin Qin, Tianxiang Ning, Lei Tan, Lingjun Li and Kangyu Zou

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020069

Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the most widely used electrode material of AMICs due to its advantages of low cost, a large specific surface area, and excellent electrical conductivity. However, the application of carbon is limited by its low specific capacity, finite kinetic performance, and few active sites. Doping heteroatoms in carbon materials is an effective strategy to adjust their microstructures and improve their electrochemical storage performance, which effectively helps to increase the pseudo-capacitance, enhance the wettability, and increase the ionic migration rate. Moreover, an appropriate heteroatom doping strategy can purposefully guide the design of advanced AMICs. Herein, a systematic review of advanced heteroatom (N, S, P, and B)-doped carbon, which has acted as a positrode and negatrode in AMICs (M = Li, Na, and K) in recent years, has been summarized. Moreover, emphasis is placed on the mechanism of single-element doping versus two-element doping for the enhancement in the performance of carbon positrodes and negatrodes, and an introduction to the use of doped carbon in dual-carbon alkali metal-ion capacitors (DC-AMICs) is discussed. Finally, an outlook is given to solve the problems arising when using doped carbon materials in practical applications and future development directions are presented.

Keywords:

alkali metal-ion capacitor; carbon material; heteroatom doping; electrochemical performance

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the most widel...

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