Kerala - God's Own Land

The Cheras

Though the Cheras had their capital at Vanchi in the interior, they had the famous harbour towns of Tyndis and Muziris on the Arabian Sea coast for trade. The Cheras ruled over the central portion of the present day Kerala. They seemed to have attracted a good deal of Roman trade. There are vivid descriptions in Sangham literature of Yavana ships coming to Muziris, laden with gold and waiting for pepper, the black gold of the Romans, at some distance from the shore. The hoards of Roman gold coins unearthed from Kottayam and Eyyal in Kerala authenticity to such statements. There were a number of other minor chieftains who flourished in different parts of Kerala. The sage Agastya is the father of Tamil grammar and literature and the entire social world of Kerala, as part of Tamilakam (Tamil land) is reflected in the rich collection of secular poems which form the characteristic legacy of the Sangham age.

Trade

Contact with the Mauryan empire gave the first impulse for the transformation of tribal policy into civilized polity. The stimulus of overseas trade provided by the Roman empire in the first three centuries of the Christian era triggered off the next phase of development in Tamilakam. The geographical advantages i.e., the abundance of pepper and other spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the seas and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Kerala in less than forty days, combined to produce a veritable boom in Kerala's foreign trade. The harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Quilandy, Muziris near Kodungallor and Bacare near Alappuzha owed their existence primarily to the Roman trade. Roman contact with Kerala might have given rise to small colonies of Jews and Syrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala. The Jews of Kochi believe that their ancestors came to the west coast of India as refugees following the destruction of Jerusalem in the first century A.D. The Syrian Christians claim to be the descendants of the converts of St. Thomas, one of the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Arab contacts are also very ancient and Islam came to Kerala as far back as the 9th century A.D.

Brahmin Settlement

The fourth and fifth centuries witnessed the decline and fall of the western Roman empire. A shrivelling of the Roman sea trade followed, leading in its turn, to a decline of the harbour towns like Tyndis and Muziris. Further, political incursions from the north into Tamilakam took place. The traditions of Nambudiris (Kerala Brahmins) recorded in the Keralolpatti chronicle refer to Mayurvarman, the Kadamba king, as their patron during the period the after Parasurama. A Kadamba record of the 5th century at the Edakkal cave in Wayanad bears testament to the Kadamba presence in Kerala. The last phase of the Sangham age coincided with a silent revolution that was brewing within the social system in Kerala. By about the 8th century, a chain of thirty two Brahmin settlements had come up, which eventually paved the way for the social, cultural and political separation of Kerala from the Tamil country, in due course. These colonies were capable of producing a great philosopher, Sankaracharya. Shri Sankara was born in the village of Kaladi in central Kerala. He was an intellectual giant of the 9th century, who saved the Hindu orthodoxy through the synthesis of cults and who can well be ranked with St. Thomas of Aquinas in clarity of thought and understanding. He was a product of the post Sangham, new A***n settlements of Kerala, who were far removed from the cradle - land of the Indo - Gangetic civilization. The whole of Kerala came to be covered by a network of temple centered Brahmin settlements. Under their control, these settlements had a large extend of land, number of tenants and the entailing privileges. With more advanced techniques of cultivation, socio-political organization and a strong sense of solidarity, the Brahmins gradually formed the elite of the society. They succeeded in raising a feudal fighting class and ordered the caste system with numerous graduations of upper, intermediate and lower classes. In due course, the consolidation of these settlements and the establishments of their ascendancy gradually led to the evolution of a new Malayalee language and a new Malayalee culture, the separate identity of Kerala was in the making.

The ninth century

The ninth century raised the curtain of a new epoch in Kerala history. The ancient capital of Vanchi fell into the hands of the Pandyas. The vanquished rulers founded a new capital near the old harbour city of Muciri (Muziri), now known as Kodungalloor. The new capital was called Makotai or Mahodayapura and was built around the great Siva temple of Tiruvanchikulam. No trace of the palace at Makotai remains today. The author of Kokasandesa found it in ruins even in the 16th century. He saw in the ruins yet another example of the fickle nature of the goddess of prosperity. The revival of the Chera kingdom was actually a by-product of the A***n Brahmin settlements and assumption of the socio-political dominance they had established. The Perumal was the Lord of Mahodayapura and the overlord of Kerala (Keraladhinatha). But his sovereignty was constrained by the pre-existing power of the Brahmin settlements and the hereditary chieftains. Each Nadu or District had its own hereditary or nominated governor. Thus the great feudatories were the hereditary governors of Kolathunad, Purakizhanad, Kurumpanad, Eranad, Valluvanad, Kizhamalanad, Vempalanad and Venad.The northernmost district of Kolathunad was almost independent and was brought under Chera sovereignty by force towards the end of the 9th century. Venad, the southernmost district, was carved out of the ancient territory of the Vels. A new harbour city, named Kollam, was established here in A.D. 825. In the course of time, it became the second capital of the Cheras of Makotai. Kollam gradually gained in trade and prosperity under the leadership of Mar Sapir Iso, the Syrian Christian merchant prince. The founding of Kollam city marked the beginning of an era, which came into use all over Kerala and parts of the Pandyan kingdom and even in Ceylon by astronomers and officials, who tagged it on to the Saptarishi era. The Kollam era came to be known as the Malayalam era.

The 12th century

The beginning of the 12th century marked a period of troubled times for Kerala. The attack by the combined forces of the Cholas and the Pandyas and internal conflicts in the Chera kingdom made Rama Kulasekhara the Perumal, to leave the country in the company of some Arab Muslims. He is believed to have been converted into Islam and have died at a place called Sapher in Arabia. This event has been referred to as the partition of Kerala. In the absence of a central power, the divisions of the Chera kingdom soon emerged as principalities under separate chieftains. These were crucial events which shaped the destinies of Kerala, for many centuries to come. In this period, Kerala was chiefly a land of agricultural villages. Society had a feudal complexion with a graded hierarchy, hereditary occupations and well-defined duties and responsibilities for each class of people. Proprietorship of land was closely related to political power and administration. A peculiarity of the social system in Kerala which comes to notice in the epigraphic and literary records of this age is the matrilineal form of inheritance. In spite of the predominantly agrarian character of society, trade and commerce flourished. Hill products from the Western Ghats carried down, by the many rivers, to the natural harbours on the Arabian Sea secured an expanding market in West Asia and Europe. A number of Jewish and Christian traders exploited this situation with the help of the monsoon. The native chieftains overlooked the differences in faith and race and extended them religious tolerance as well as social equality. These merchants were not inclined to or capable of disturbing established order. In fact, Syrian Christian and Jewish leaders like Mar Sapir Iso and Joseph Rabban came to the rescue of Chera kings in times of war and thereby earned their gratitude in full measure.

Intrusion of Foreign Power

The loss of political unity did not lead to the loss of political independence in Kerala during the fag end of 14th century. The ghost of the Chera kingdom haunted the destiny of Kerala as a guardian deity for many centuries to come. Each minor chieftain claimed the gift of the last Cheraman Perumal as the sanction behind his throne. It was essentially a game of power politics. Within a generation of the decline of Chera power, the governors of Eranad shifted from their interior headquarters at Nediyiruppu to the coastal strip of Kozhikode. Gradually, the Eradis (rulers of Eranad), now known to the world better as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, grew in prosperity and power. The locational advantage enjoyed by their new headquarters with its proximity to Kozhikode was a decisive factor in attracting a growing number of Arab traders. The rulers also exhibited a measure of statesmanship in quarantining religious tolerance to all sects and creeds in the big international mart at Kozhikode. In due course, they roped in the chieftains of Parappanad and Vettattunad in the south as well as Kurumbranad and Puranad (Kottayam) in the north, within their sphere of influence.

The Zamorin also succeeded in their venture to capture Tirunavaya region from the Valluvanad rulers. This victory brought the Zamorin directly into contact with the rulers of Kochi. It opened up a long chapter of protracted Kozhikode-Kochi wars. The contest could not stop until one of the powers could eliminate the other. The support of Arab wealth and equipment favoured Kozhikode against Kochi during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, until this was counter - balanced by the Europeans - the Dutch and the Portuguese - on the other side. Not only the princes and princelings of Kerala, but the entire population had to take sides. In fact, the big Brahmin community split into two, with the Panniyur faction supporting the Zamorin and the Cokiram faction throwing its weight in favour of the Raja of Kochi. The central portion of Kerala, over which the rulers of Kochi held sway, was the seat of Namboodiri (Brahmin) orthodoxy. Though the Raja of Kochi was respected all over Kerala as the direct descendant of the Perumals and the noblest representative of the Kshatriya race, the inhibiting weight of tradition made him incapable of initiating new strategies and policies to suit the changing times. He remained the highest patron of Brahminical ritual and scholarship. In the process, wealth and power slipped out of his hands and made way for art and literature. In the southern part of Kerala, Venad was the rising star. Geographically and culturally, the kingdom of Venad remained partly in Keraladesa and partly in Pandyadesa. The Venad area was definitely at a disadvantage in the absence of the original settlements of Tulu-Kerala Brahmins, whose leadership and dominance had been responsible for the distinctive character of Kerala society and culture. However, in course of time, the immense wealth of the Venad kings could attract some of the Kerala Brahmins (Namboodiris) to settle down at Thiruvananthapuram. Nevertheless, excessive involvement in Tamil politics weakened the impact of Venad on the rest of Kerala.

Post Chera Period

The post Chera period witnessed a gradual decadence of the Namboodiris, until by about the 16th century, they put of their affairs in the hands of their Nair secretaries. A Namboodiri - Nair alliance came into being. Another feature of this period was the widening gulf between the Namboodiri - Nair upper class and the Thiyya - Pulaya lower class. In order to accommodate the class differences properly, the four-fold caste system came to be sub-divided with infinite gradations, based on real occupation, habitat and political influence. With increasing rigidity of caste, the worst sufferers were the Parayar, Pulayar, Cheramar etc. They were attached to plots of cultivable land and unceremoniously exchanged along with the plots without any right to family or children. This feudal society, however, was prosperous and complacent. With agricultural and commercial prosperity on the increase, festivals like Onam and Vishu, which began as mere sectarian religious observances, acquired the character of popular celebrations. They were fixed up at a time when the tenants had to pay their feudal dues to the owners of land. The enthusiasm of the tenants transformed Onam, a Vaishnava sacred day commemorating the Vamana incarnation, into a harvest festival.

At this point of time, feudal society was blissfully ignorant of the Afghan, Pathan and Mongol invasions which uprooted ancient Hindu society in most parts of India beyond the Sahya, the great sentinel of Kerala. This coastal area had, along the rest of Thamilakom, remained outside the big empires in the past. This time also, it escaped the catastrophe of Alauddin Khilji's campaign, which pushed southward straight to Rameshwaram. The kings and people were so immersed in their own petty feuds that the appearance of Portuguese naval power on the not-so-distant horizon of the Arabian Sea did not open their eyes to the advent, the perils and prospects of the modern age. Portuguese traveller, Vasco da Gama laid anchor off Kozhikode on May 21, 1498. This historic even marked the beginning of a new epoch in the history of Kerala. It also opened a new chapter in the relations between the different States in Kerala. The declared aim of the Portuguese was monopoly of the trade with the country to the exclusion of all others. The Portuguese captain demanded the expulsion of all Muslim traders. The Zamorin explained that for centuries Kozhikode had been a free port and that the Portuguese were welcome to trade as anyone else. This increased the Portuguese who let loose a reign of terror along the coast.

The political set up characterized by innumerable principalities in the area was ideal for their machinations to set the weak against the strong and the subordinate chieftains against their sovereign rights over Kochi. The Zamorin retaliated with all the resources at his disposal. The Malabar fleet was decidedly inferior to the Portuguese fleet. The Zamorin set about to rectify this imbalance by reorganizing his fleet under the able leadership of Kunhali Marakkar. The new fleet under Marakkar soon snowballed into a threat to the Portuguese trade and shipping. They were forced to keep regular fleets to convoy their ships, but of little avail against the wily tactics of Marakkar. In a bid to humble the power of the Portuguese, the Zamorin launched an attack against Kochi. These attempts failed to drive the Portuguese out of gear and dislocated their shipping and trade. The Zamorin even attempted to forge a coalition of the States bordering the Arabian Sea who were adversely affected by Portuguese activities. These at best, met with partial success in its engagements with the Portuguese. The threat from the Malabar seamen under the Kunhali to Portuguese trade and shipping reached menacing proportions. The Zamorin, in the meanwhile, had fallen out with the Kunhalis. The Portuguese then joined Zamorin in a united thrust against the Kunhalis. After two sieges, the new allies were able to capture Kottakkal, the headquarters of the Kunhalis. But, neither the fall of Kottakkal nor the death of Kunhali Marakkar brought the Portuguese any respite from the attacks of the Kunhalis, who now began to harass Portuguese shipping and trade with a vengeance. The advent of the Dutch and the English placed the Portuguese at a further disadvantage. The Dutch had come to the East in a spirit of competition with the Portuguese. Their main strategy was to drive out of the latter. By 1663, they had finally overthrown the Portuguese power on the Malabar coast. The treaty which the Dutch concluded with the Rajas of Malabar clearly showed that their monopolistic tendencies were less ambitious than those of the Portuguese whom they supplanted. They tried to entrench themselves by interfering unabashedly in local politics.

The Kochi Raja's dependence on the Dutch went to such lengths that the latter acquired an effective voice not only in the administration but even in Kochi succession. This interference naturally brought stiff opposition from the Kochi princes and nobles. The second quarter of the 18th century witnessed a diminution and gradual erosion of Dutch supremacy. The scene was set for the ascendancy of the English on the Malabar coast. The English secured their foothold in Kerala in 1682, when they obtained permission from the Vadakkilamkur Prince of Kolattunad, to settle at Thalassery. In 1694 they settled at Anjengo (Anchuthengu) in Travancore (Thiruvithamcore). It was from these settlements that the English were able to extend their influence over Kerala. In the initial stages, the English were inclined to take a lesson from the experiences of the Portuguese and the Dutch and keep themselves aloof from local quarrels. But in time, this resolution watered down and the East India Company began to provide assistance to local powers to fight against their common enemies, but without, at the same time, entangling themselves directly in the conflicts. Thus the Company assisted both Marthanda Varma, King of Travancore and the Zamorin in their quarrels with the Dutch and other local powers. The Mysorean invasion of Malabar provided the Company further opportunity to strengthen its grip on the local rajas and chieftains. The Raja of Travancore was asked by the Company officers to met the entire expenditure of the Third Anglo-Mysore war on the plea that the war was undertaken in defence of Travancore. The new treaty of 1795 practically reduced Travancore from the position of a friend and ally of the English East India Company to that of a protected ally. The Raja was forced to entertain a subsidiary force far beyond his capacity to subsidise. The Company also claimed a monopoly in the pepper trade of the country. The natural outcome of all these developments was to drag Travancore into the vortex of a major financial crisis. The Raja was forced to raise loans from bankers and merchants. The Company's authorities insistently demanded the clearing of arrears of tribute. The Raja was in a quandary.

Velu Thampi, the newly appointed Dalava tried to put the State's finances in order by reducing expenditure and increasing revenues wherever possible. One measure of economy was the scrapping of the field allowances paid to troops in times of peace. This led to a revolt by the Travancore troops. The insurgency was put down by the exertions of the native troops alone. But the Company authorities were visibly disturbed. The Madras Government insisted on a modification of the treaty of 1795 so that British troops be used to aid the Raja in quelling internal commotion's as well. Thus a new treaty of perpetual friendship and alliance was signed in January 1805. The new treaty was not well received, especially by Velu Thampi Dalava. The Dalava began concerted moves for an open rebellion against the British in defense of the king and the country. He began to recruit soldiers and collect arms. This move had the whole-hearted support from all sections of the people. The insurrection that followed was formidable one. But it was short-lived. On January 16, 1807 Velu Thampi issued a historic proclamation at Kundara calling upon the people to rise en masse against the British. The response was wide-spread and in many places British troops were put in peril. But, as British contingents began to converge on Travancore from different directions, the rebels lost heart and the revolt began to peter out. The Raja, who was anxious about the safety of his throne, wrote to the Resident requesting for the cessation of hostilities. Peace was concluded in March 1809. Velu Thampi, who was hiding in the Mannadi Temple, committed su***de.

A new treaty was imposed upon Travancore with the same clauses as were found in the treaty of 1805. The natural consequences of fighting with the British and losing the fight, overtook the three princely states. British control over these states increased in inverse proportion to the decrease in the power of the Rajas. By 1812 British control was effectively established all over the three regions of Kerala - Malabar, Kochi and Travancore. The expansion of British powers in Kerala was by no means a smooth affair. There were occasions of violent resistance against them well up to the second decade of the 19th century by which time consolidation of British power had more or less been achieved. There were organised revolts of the natives at Anchuthengu in 1695 and 1721 and at Thalassery in 1704. But it must be stressed that these uprisings were not merely sporadic and local but singularly lacking in that spirit of nationalism which was animating the nations of Europe at that time. The ruling dynasties and the politically powerful elements in Kerala did not even dimly perceive that the English Company was the entering wedge of European imperialism. As distinct from these sporadic, localized revolts, that showed the characteristics of a popular insurrection was the Kuruchiya revolt of 1812. The Kurichiyas and Kurumbas were a fairly numerous tribal folk inhabiting the mountains of Waynad in Malabar. Led by their chieftain Talakkal Chandu, they constituted the main prop of Pazhassi Raja's militia and earned for him many victories in his guerrilla warfare against the British. After the suppression of the Pazhassi rebellion, the British brought Wayanad under their strict surveillance and subjected the Kurichiyas to untold abuses and misery. The rebellion broke out on March 25, 1812. It speaks much for the unity of the tribals that they kept all preparations a closely guarded secret until the rebellion began. Though confined to a limited area in north Malabar, it was truly a mass uprising triggered off by economic grievances and official high-handedness.

The Kurichiyas took possessions of all important passes leading to Wayanad and cut supplies and reinforcements to the ambushed British troops in the valley. The magnitude of the insurrection is revealed by the fact that the sub collector of the division had to frantically requisition troops from Canara and Mysore as the local British regiment was insufficient to deal with the uprising. For a few days at least, British administration ceased to function in the Wayanad area. The failure of the revolt was a foregone conclusion, for tribal heroism was ill-matched with the sophisticated military machinery of the English Company. Early in April, the British troops moved into the jungles, combed out the guerrilla hands and suppressed them. By the beginning of May 1812, the revolt was effectively crushed quiet returned to Wayanad. The Kuruchiya uprising represented the last of the early organized revolts against British power in Kerala. A period of political acquiescence, extending for almost a century, ensured. The only exception was the series of violent disturbances known as the 'Moopa Riots' in Malabar from about 1835 to the close of the century. Though the riots occurred in different parts of Malabar, they were mostly confined to the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks. Agrarian unrest among the Moplas, their general economic backwardness and the low level of education have been mentioned as the fundamental factors behind these outbreaks. Barring these sporadic outbreaks, political tranquillity prevailed over the whole of Kerala for roughly a century since the suppression of the Velu Thampi and Kuruchiya revolts. A sense of helplessness against British authority, an awareness that British rule had come to stay, became the dominant note in popular mind. With Malabar directly administered by the British as part of the Madras Presidency and guided by the paramount power, Kerala enjoyed perhaps the longest span of relative peace in her history. It was, moreover, the period when she felt the full impact of the West which helped lay, as it were, the foundations of a "New Kerala". Under the aegis of the British Government and the enlightened rulers of Travancore and Kochi, substantial developments took place in the administrative, social, economic and cultural fields of Kerala. Reforms and changes were introduced in the administration. The judiciary and the legal systems were completely reorganised. Humanitarian and welfare measures - abolition of slavery and removal of the ban on the wearing of upper-cloth by the low-caste people, to mention only a few, were undertaken. Public works like roads, irrigation and communication received special attention. Above all, the 19th century saw the introduction and spread of western education, in which a very significant role was played by the various Christian missionaries. Through the medium of English education, Kerala was exposed to the full blast of western civilization. Her intellectual isolation was broken. Reforms necessarily entailed changes in the conditions and outlook of the people and these changes in turn necessarily opened the floodgates of further reforms.

Socio-Religious Reform Movement

From 1812 until almost the close of the century, though political life was characterized by inactivity and society presented an outward calmness, subversive forces were forming and developing. This current of social transformation gradually led Kerala into the mainstream of political struggle for freedom and responsible government in the 20th century.The important outcome of this ferment was the awakening of the masses especially the lower orders in the Hindu society, against social injustice and evils. This awakening found articulation in Kerala towards the last quarter of the 19th century. A number of socio-religious reform movements, which were also the earliest democratic mass movements in Kerala, took shape. On the whole, these movements were peaceful and non-violent, though there was an undercurrent of militancy in them. These movements were of the utmost significance, because Kerala had, for centuries, tolerated the caste system in its most oppressive form. The rigid caste system and irrational caste taboos existed in such a heinous way that the lower orders were not only 'untouchable' but ''unapproachable'' as well. In Malabar, despite the advent of direct British rule and the resultant separation of the caste system from the administrative machinery, social status and economic competence of the individual was still determined by his position in the caste hierarchy. In the princely states of Kochi and Travancore, the hold of the caste system was even more suffocating. Until the 20th century, governmental positions were denied to lower castes and non-Hindus.

One of the most important social reform movements was spearheaded by Shri Narayana Guru, the great Hindu saint and social reformer. The Guru was born in 1856 in the Ezhava Community which had a status far below that of the Nambudiris. He fearlessly criticized and campaigned against the rigours of the caste system, the Brahmin hegemony and the numerous social disabilities of the Ezhavas and other lower castes. Soon Shri Narayana Guru became the rallying point for the Ezhavas and Thiyyas to unite and organize. The Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP), literally the society for the propagation of moral teaching of Shri Narayana came into being on 15th May 1903. Within a short period, the Guru and Yogam drew towards them a brilliant band of dedicated workers, including the poet Kumaran Asan, whose efforts constitute an eloquent testament to what a community, submitted to centuries of tyranny, can do and achieve through unity, realism and organism.

Shri Narayana was, however, no sectarian philosopher and leader. A programme of action founded upon such sublime humanism and social purpose was not destined to remain confined to one caste only; it soon became the philosophy of Hindu reformation, encompassing all castes, including the Brahmin. The Nairs also felt the need for reform. Throughout the medieval period and until well into the 19th century, the Nairs had a pre-eminent role in Kerala. By the middle of the 19th century, however, this dominance started waning. Institutions like the sambandam (non-legal marriage) and the matrilineal joint family system, which had ensured the strength of the Nair community earlier, now became productive of many evils. The impact of the market economy, the disappearance of traditional military training, the absorption of new values through the new system of education, the self-consciousness being generated among the lower castes and their cry for equality and privileges - all these factors brought about a decline of Nair dominance. The sense of decline gave an impetus to the spirit of reform that expressed itself in the work of religious men like Chattambi Swamikal, in literature, on the press and later in legislative enactments in respect of marriage, inheritance, property rights etc. Ultimately, the movements crystalized in the foundation of the Nair Service Society in 1914. The impulse to change was not confined to the Ezhavas and other untouchables and the Nairs only. As a matter of fact in varying degrees, it affected every caste in Hindu society as well as the Christians and the Muslims.

Vaikom Satyagraha

A movement had set on foot to demand admission of the certain sections of the people, the so called 'unapproachables' banned from appearing in public roads adjacent to the famous temple at Vaikom. Conservative opposition was trotted out with obstinate determination. The feeding of Brahmins inside the temple was regarded as an important offering to the deity, and uninterrupted custom was pleaded by those who opposed the movement. It was contended that if the 'Avarnas' were allowed to come into the approach roads the temple priests would be polluted and the temple consequently defiled. The forward section resolved to try the methods of 'Satyagraha' and several individuals, a large number of whom being Nayars and other caste Hindus, organised a "Jatha" to lay their grievance before Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bai, the Regent of Travancore. A resolution was moved in the Legislative Council demanding the opening of the temple roads to the 'Avarna' Hindus. But it was thrown out by a majority of twenty-two against twenty-one votes. A little after this Mahatma Gandhi visited Vaikom in Meenam 1100(Ch. era-1924), interviewed several orthodox Brahmins and others, and explained the movement as one which was calculated to remove social injustice and to advance the cause of humanity. Public opinion in the state was so favourable that the government threw open the approach roads to the 'Avarnas'. "I call it a bed-rock of freedom", said Mahatma Gandhi, "because the settlement is a document between the people and the state constituting a big step in the direction of liberty in one respect at least". The course of events in Vaikom led to similar attempts in Suchindram and Thiruvarppu.

Guruvayur Satyagraha

The famous Guruvayur Satyagraha is a memorable episode in the history of the national movement. With the blessings of Mahatma Gandhi the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee decided to begin Satyagraha before the famous temple at Guruvayur with effect from 1st November, 1931. It was a movement for temple entry and abolition of untouchability. The Satyagraha began accordingly under the leadership of Sri. K. Kelappan. Among the Kerala leaders other than Kelappan were Mannath Padmanabhan, A.K. Gopalan and N.P. Damodaran. Guruvayur began to attract the attention of all India. There were certain untoward incidents during the early period of the Satyagraha. They served to heighten the tension in the minds of the people who were in sympathy with the movement. After the movement had run its course for about ten months, Kelappan entered on a fast before the temple on September, 21, 1932. The fast electrified the atmosphere. On October 2, 1932 Kelappan broke his fast in response to Gandhiji's wishes. There after a referendum was held among the Hindus to find out their views on the question of temple entry. More than 77 percent of the Hindus expressed themselves in favour of temple entry. The Guruvayur temple was thrown open to Harijans only in 1946. Though the Satyagraha did not immediately result in the opening of the Guruvayur temple to all Hindus, the movement helped to create a strong public opinion in the country in favour of temple entry and abolition of untouchability.

Temple Entry Proclamation

In Travancore the movements for the mitigation of the severities of caste, if not its total abolition, have been popular. The teachings of Sree Narayana Guru gave a momentum to the forces which were generated by the extension of western education among the masses and the tolerant policy pursued by the State in recognising the legitimate claims of the backward communities. The promulgation of the Temple Entry Proclamation was a reform of far-reaching importance, not only to the teeming millions of Travancore but a momentous act of emancipation and hope to the whole of India. The Proclamation runs as follows: "Profoundly convinced of the truth and validity of our religion, believing that it is based on divine guidance and on all-comprehending toleration, knowing that in its practice it has through out the centuries, adapted itself to the needs of changing times, solicitous that none of our Hindu subjects should, by reason of birth or caste of community, be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu faith. "His Highness the Maharaja had earlier in his reign commanded the appointment of a committee to examine the question of Temple Entry for the 'Avarnas' to find out the extent of the demand for reforms, to ascertain the attitude of the Savarna castes, to examine the question in the light of the Hindu scriptures and formulate proposals as to the lines on which the reform might be effected. The committee expressed their considered opinion that a Parishad of learned persons, well versed in the theory and practice of Hinduism, should be summoned, and that the reform might be effected by the ruler with their approval. They also suggested certain methods by which the rigour of the custom excluding the Avarnas from the temple might be softened. But the Maharaja did not believe in half measures. With an outlook which no Indian monarch had been able to entertain for a couple of thousands of conservative years, His Highness the Maharaja Sree Chitra Thirunal affixed the Sign Manual to the momentous Proclamation. It was on the eve of the Maharaja's birth day in 1112(1936 A.D.) that the edict was promulgated. The Proclamation was received throughout India with delight and admiration. It was welcomed by the whole civilised world. To the Hindus it was matter of pride and fresh hope. The repercussions of the Proclamation were so great that the Christians and Muslims were so great that the Christians and Muslims were equally warm in giving it a hearty reception. Dr. C. P. Ramaswami Aiyer referred to the day of the Proclamation as a unique occasion in the history of India and specially of Hinduism. Gandhiji expressed the hope that "all other Hindu Princes will follow the noble example set by this far-off ancient Hindu State." The Prime Minister of Madras described the Proclamation as the "greatest religious reform in India after the time of Asoka". The Maharaja gave the biggest charity that any ruler could give to his subjects in opening the doors to every class and creed.

Emergence of Nationalism

The last decades of the 19th century saw the emergence of nationalism in India. The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 and it soon became the spearhead of the Indian Nationalist Movement. These developments did not go unnoticed in Kerala. A conference was held at Kozhikode in 1904 under the auspices of the Congress and in 1908, a district Congress committee was formed in Malabar. Beyond this, there was no political activity worth the name in Malabar.

Malayalee Memorial

In Travancore, political agitation began with the Nairs who found their dominance on the decline and resented the monopolization of higher officers by the Tamil Brahmins inducted from outside. Their appetite for political participation was whetted with the formation of the Travancore Legislative Council in 1888 - the first ever legislative started in an Indian State. The Malayali Memorial, a memorandum bearing the signatures of over 10,000 people, including a sprinkling of Ezhavas, Christians and Muslims, was submitted to the Maharaja in 1891. It was really a Nair plea for privileges and positions. This was soon followed by an Ezhava Memorial (1896), submitted with over 13,000 signatures pleading for extension of civic rights, Government jobs, etc. to the lower castes. Both the memoranda came to naught. But in the historical perspective, the impact was considerable as they laid the bases for the constitutional style of political agitation in Travancore. Political activity in Kerala received a new impetus with the outbreak of the First World War and the spread of the Home Rule Movement. Home Rule leagues sprouted in different places in Malabar and the activities of Congress men received enthusiastic encouragement from the people. In 1916 and 1917, the annual meetings of the District Congress Committee were held with great fanfare under the name of the Malabar District Political Conference. Resolutions were adopted at these conferences, demanding self-government for India and the release of political prisoners. In Travancore and Cochin also, political activities were taken up under the aegis of the Congress. Congress Committees were started in Thiruvananthapuram and Ernakulam. In 1920, the following resolutions adopted at the Nagpur Session of the Indian National Congress to organise Provincial Congress Committees on a linguistic basis, a Kerala Provincial Congress Committee was formed integrating Congress activities in the three territorial divisions of Kerala. The first All-Kerala Political Conference held at Ottappalam in April 1921 was attended by delegates from Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. In a sense, this was the herald of the movement for a united Kerala which - became a reality, 35 years later.

Malabar Rebellion

The non - co - operation movement was in full swing during this period of time. It was particularly strong in Malabar, where the Moppilas were agitated over the Khilafat issue. The Gandhian movement had a tremendous impact in Kerala, with large numbers joining the satyagraha campaign. Gandhiji visited Malabar in 1920, giving a further impetus to the movement. Khilafat Committees sprang up in large numbers and the fraternity between the Hindus and Muslims, through the work in Congress - Khilafat Committees, was a truly remarkable feature of the non-co-operation movement in Kerala, in its early stages. The speed with which the Khilafat agitation spread, especially in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks, created alarm in official circles. A perplexed officialdom clamped down prohibition orders in the two taluks. Meetings were banned and many people were arrested in the name of law and order. A tragic episode then ensued, namely the Moppila Rebellion or the Malabar Rebellion of 1921. Police attempted to arrest the secretary of the Khilafat Committee of Pokottur in Eranad on a charge of having stolen a pistol. A crowd of 2000 Moppilas from the neighbourhood foiled the attempt. The next day, a police party in search of Khilafat rebels entered the famous Mambaram mosque at Tirurangadi. They seized some records and arrested a few Khilafat volunteers. A rumour spread that the mosque was desecrated. Hundreds of rustic Moppilas converged on Tirurangadi and besieged the local police station. The police opened fire. The mob reacted in a mad fury. Violence spread and engulfed Eranad and Valluvanad taluks and neighbouring areas for over two months. Congress leaders tried in vain to check the violence. Towards the later stages of the rebellion, owing to unfounded rumour of Hindus having helped the police or sought police help, there were instances of atrocities perpetrated on Hindus. This marred the relations between the two communities. Meanwhile British and Gurkha regiments were rushed to the area. Martial law was clamped. A series of repressive measures followed and by November, the rebellion was practically crushed. Relief operations in the ravaged areas, undertaken mostly by voluntary agencies which received help and funds from Gandhiji, lasted for over six months.

Wagon Tragedy

The epilogue (in the sense that it came to be known only later) was the 'Wagon Tragedy' in which 61 of the 70 Moppila prisoners packed in a closed railway goods wagon and carried to Coimbatore jails, died of suffocation on November 10, 1921. In the wake of the suppression of the Malabar Rebellion and until almost the end of the decade, struggle purely for political freedom was on a low key. This lull was largely because of the brisk activity on the social front. The emphasis was on constructive programmes in which all people could join together and work irrespective of political views or affiliation. The cry for social equality was particularly strong. This was the background of the famous satyagraha at Vaikom Temple (1924) to be followed up later at the Guruvayoor Temple in 1931. Both of them exemplified the immense potentialities of satyagraha as an instrument of social change and both were started with the blessings of Gandhiji. At Vaikom, the particular demand was only for the grant of right to passage to the untouchables along the approach roads to the temple.

Civil Disobedience

The second phase of the civil disobedience movement, started by Gandhiji with his famous Salt March in March 1930, found enthusiastic response from all parts of Kerala. In several places, particularly at Payyannur and Kozhikode, salt laws were broken and hundreds of agitators courted arrest. A Youth League was formed in Travancore which was able to enlist the dedicated services of quite a good number of spiritual and radical minded young men who later became the prop of the Travancore State Congress. In the wake of the Civil Disobedience Movement, a parallel movement for responsible Government had begun in Travancore and Kochi. In Travancore, the Nivartana (Abstention) movement began as a protest against the inadequacy of the constitutional reforms of 1932. The Ezhavas, the Christians and the Muslims apprehended that the new reforms, owing to the provisions for restricted franchise on the basis of possession of property and other qualifications, would secure for them far less number of seats in the enlarged legislature than the Nairs. They therefore demanded that the seats be apportioned on the basis of population strength. The Government, however, did not view their demands favourably. Those who took part in abstention then organized a Joint Political Congress to exhort the voters to abstain from voting. Since the three communities together formed about 70 per cent of the population, their agitation had the characteristics of a mass movement. The Government at first adopted a repressive policy but later yielded to the demands of those who supported abstention to some extent. In the election held in 1937, most of the candidates fielded by the Joint Political Congress were elected. The Haripura Session of the Indian National Congress (1938) had resolved that the Congress as such would keep itself aloof from involvement in the affairs of the princely States. The struggle for responsible Government in the States would therefore, be the responsibility of the people of the respective States themselves. It was in this context that the leaders of the Joint Political Congress decided to form a new organization, merging the identity of the Joint Political Congress. Thus, the Travancore State Congress came into being in February 1938. It was pledged to the goal of achieving full responsible Government for the people of Travancore. In neighbouring Kochi, the Kochi State Congress was formed.

The Left Movements

An important feature of the freedom movement in Kerala in the 1920s and 1930s was the increasing involvement of peasants and workers. This was to release a tremendous mass force into the mainstream of the national movement, giving it a new momentum and a social content. The peasant and labour movements of the 1930s were to a great extent the cause as well as the consequence of the emergence of a powerful left wing in politics. In 1934, the left nationalists joined together and organized the Congress Socialist Party. A powerful factor that helped the growth of the left movement was the support it received from the radical section of the nationalist Muslims in Malabar. Left groups started functioning in several parts of Malabar and soon the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee was dominated by them. The lull in the political horizon had largely been made up. By 1938-39 Kerala was fully drawn into the national struggle for freedom as well as the struggle for responsible Government in the princely States. The leftists preferred to remain organizationally within the Congress and call themselves socialists. Thus both the left and right groups joined together in order to ensure the success of the Congress candidates in the election of 1936 in Malabar. But the rift came into the open with the out-break of the Second World War, the resignation of the Congress ministries in the provinces and the starting of individual satyagraha. The Left met in a secret enclave at Pinarayi and in December 1939, the Communist Party was born.

Responsible Government

The struggle for responsible Government had been launched in Travancore and Cochin by 1938-39. The struggle in Cochin was far less in intensity than that in Travancore because the rulers of Cochin adopted on the whole, a lenient policy of political concessions which averted violent clashes. In June 1938 a diarchal form of Government was established allowing popular ministers to control some departments. This did not work and the Cochin Praja Mandalam was founded in 1941 to spearhead the agitation for full responsibility in Government. The Travancore State Congress launched a campaign seeking dismissal of the Dewan, C.P.Ramaswamy Iyer, against whom they had levelled certain charges.

The State Congress and the Youth League were banned. The State Congress then organized a civil disobedience movement. The rising tempo of the movement forced the Government to withdraw the ban. The Dewan refused to open negotiation until the charges were withdrawn. The charges were finally withdrawn following Gandhiji's intervention. This created a split in the Congress. The members of the Youth League left the State Congress to form the Communist Party. The end of the Quit India Movement saw Malabar returning to elections and a constitutional Government. Administratively Malabar was a district of Madras Province at the time of independence. In Kochi diarchy was finally abolished and on the eve of independence the Dewanship ended. A popular ministry under Panampally Govinda Menon was sworn into power.

Punnapra-Vayalar Revolt

Travancore, however, was not destined to have a peaceful transition to freedom democracy. In October 1946, she had to face one of the most violent upheavals in her recent history - the Punnapra-Vayalar revolt. It developed as a reaction to the constitutional scheme proposed by the Dewan, C P Ramaswamy Iyer, early in January, 1946. The scheme provided for adult franchise, but retained the dewanship as an irremovable exertive. The State Congress rejected the scheme. The Communists decided to launch a violent struggle to bring an end to the oppressive rule of the Dewan. The coastal taluks of Alappuzha and Chertala were, in particular the strongholds of the Communist Party. By the middle of 1946, there were many camps of party workers at Punnapra in Alappuzha and at Vayalar in Chertala.

Volunteers from the working class were recruited and given training. This increased the tension in the area. The government deployed not only the police but the military also. This worsened the situation. The All Travancore Trade Union Congress called for a general strike on 20 October 1946. Martial law was clamped in the area and the Dewan himself assumed the functions of the commander-in-chief. The impassioned workers and volunteers preferred confrontation - stones, bamboo spikes, areca spears and swords confronting machine guns. What followed from 24 to 27 October, was a tale of heroism and tragedy.

The revolt was suppressed. But this did not bring the difficulties of the Dewan to an end. A political crisis was again precipitated when the British announced their decision to leave India. The Dewan announced that Travancore would remain an independent State on the lapse of British paramountcy. This unleashed a fierce controversy. The Dewan let loose the forces of repression. In the midst of repression and confusion, an unsuccessful attempt on his life was made. Better counsel prevailed and the Dewan made his exist from the State. With the advent of freedom, Travancore was part of the Indian Union and the first popular ministry under Pattom A.Thanu Pillai was installed.

The Movement for a United (Aikya) Kerala

The Movement for a United (Aikya) Kerala

The movement for a united (Aikya) Kerala gathered momentum with the attainment of independence. The first concrete step in this direction was taken on 1 July 1949. Following the national policy of integration, the State of Kochi and Travancore were merged into Travancore-Kochi State under a Rajpramukh. The next step came with the reorganization of States on a linguistic basis in the light of the report of the States Reorganization Commission. It was decided to add Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of south Canara district to Travancore-Kochi and to separate the Tamil-speaking southern region of old Travancore from Travancore-Kochi for inclusion in Madras State. On 1 November 1956, the new State of Kerala was formally inaugurated. The land of Parasurama thus regained its identity with the unity of the land of Bharatha.

Political Background

When Kerala was formed, the State was under the President's rule. The new State went to the polls for the first time in March 1957. There were 126 Assembly and 16 Parliamentary seats. The Communist Party of India emerged as the single largest party in the Assembly with 60 seats. Shri E.M.S.Namboodiripad formed an 11-member ministry on 5 April 1957 with the support of some independents. Political agitation and unrest extending over several months, culminated in the taking over of the administration of the State and the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, under Article 356 of the Constitution, by the president of India on 31 July 1959. Mid-term elections followed in February next year. A three-party alliance comprising the Congress, the Praja Socialist Party and the Muslim League was returned to power. Shri Pattom A.Thanu Pillai (PSP) took over as the coalition Chief Minister, leading a council of eleven ministers in February 1960. Shri R.Sankar (Congress) was designated as the Deputy Chief Minister. Shri. Pattom A.Thanu Pillai however, resigned on 25 September 1962, consequent on a gubernatorial appointment and Shri.R.Sankar was appointed Chief Minister the next day. Shri.Sankar continued as Chief Minister for about two years.

A political crisis precipitated in September 1964, when about 15 Congress legislators lent their support to a no-confidence motion against the ministry. The motion was carried. The legislature was dissolved on 10 September and the State thereupon passed under President's rule. Elections were held in March 1965. A fresh delimitation of constituencies had taken place in between. There were 133 Assembly and 19 Parliamentary constituencies. The election proved abortive in the sense that no single party could form a ministry commanding majority support. Once again on 25th March, 1965, Kerala was put under President's administration.

The State went to the polls two years later at the time of the general elections in March 1967. A new polarization of political forces had emerged in the meantime, leading to new electoral alliances. Politically the most potent combination was the new united front of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the Communist Party of India, the Muslim League, the Revolutionary Socialist Party, the Karshaka Thozhilali Party and the Kerala Socialist Party. This seven-party combine was voted to power leading to the formation of a ministry headed by Shri.E.M.S.Namboodiripad (CPI-M). The Cabinet consisted of four members of the Marxist Party, two each of the CPI, the Muslim League and the SSP and one each of the RSP, the KTP and the KSP. Shri.Namboodiripad's second ministry had a chequered tenure until one of the ministers of the original SSP constituent, who had inter alia left the party to join the newly formed Indian Socialist Party group, had to resign from the Cabinet to face a judicial enquiry. The ministers belonging to the C.P.I., the Muslim League, the RSP and the KSP tendered their resignation in October 1969. Shri Namboodiripad himself resigned on 24th October, 1969. As distinct from previous crises, the legislature was intact. A fresh alignment of forces within the Assembly initiated the formation of an eight-member cabinet headed by Shri.C.Achutha Menon (CPI) in November 1969. The ruling alliance consisted of the CPI, the KSP, the Muslim League, the R.S.P. and the Kerala Congress. The Assembly was dissolved on 26th June, 1970 on the advice of the Chief Minister who tendered the resignation of his council of ministers on 1st August 1970.

Elections were held in September, 1970. The partners of the ruling front now included the Indian National Congress, the CPI, the RSP, the Muslim League and the Praja Socialist Party and were returned with a considerable majority. Shri.C.Achutha Menon formed his second ministry on 4th October, 1970. The Indian National Congress supported the front Government without joining it. The Cabinet was expanded on two occasions, once when the Indian National Congress joined it in September 1971 and for the second time in December, 1975 to accommodate Kerala Congress nominees. The fourth Legislative Assembly was unique in many respects. It emerged as the first Assembly in the chequered post-independence history of the State, which completed its normal constitutional term. Moreover, the normal term of the Assembly was extended on three occasions - for a period of six months from 22nd October 1975, for a second period of six months from 22nd April 1976 and for yet another six months from 22nd October 1976.

Elections were then held in March 1977, the sixth to be held since the formation of the State. The ruling front, essentially a continuation of the previous alignment of forces, won a decisive majority. Cabinet leadership now passed on to Shri.K.Karunakaran of the Congress who formed a ministry on 25 March 1977. But this ministry was short-lived. Shri.Karunakaran tendered the resignation of his Cabinet on 25 April 1977 following certain reference by the Kerala High Court in what had been known as the Rajan case. Shri.A.K.Antony (Congress) became the next Chief Minister. However, in the wake of differences of opinion of the Congress Working Committee on the attitude of the Congress vis-a-vis parliamentary by-election at Chikmagalur in Karnataka, Shri Antony resigned his Chief Ministership on 27 October 1978. Shri.P.K.Vasudevan Nair (CPI) took over as Chief Minister on 29 October 1978. But his ministry also resigned on 7 October 1979 in order to create a favourable atmosphere for the formation of a Left Democratic Front in Kerala. Shri.C.H.Muhammad Koya was sworn-in as Chief Minister on 12 October 1979, but the four-member ministry could continue in office only for a short term. The ministry resigned on 1 December 1979 and the Assembly was dissolved. Again President's rule was invoked in Kerala up to 24th January 1980. Political alignment in Kerala had then undergone a sea change involving a drastic regrouping of major political parties.

Shri.A.K.Antony rendered the resignation of his cabinet on 29 August 2004. A five-member ministry under the chief ministership of Shri Oommen Chandy assumed charge of office on 31 August 2004. Shri.Therambil Ramakrishnan was elected as the Speaker.The ministry was further expanded to a 20-member cabinet. INC faced a split in 2005, a new party DIC (K) was formed under the leadership of veteran Congress leader K.Karunakaran on 1 May 2005. Election to the 12th Assembly was conducted in three phases on 22nd, 29th April and May 3rd. The LDF won with 98 seats. The 19-member LDF ministry was sworn into power on 18th May 2006 with Shri.V.S.Achuthanandan as the Chief Minister. Shri.K.Radhakrishnan was elected as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker Shri. Jose Baby. In the 140-member house, the LDF secured 98 seats, the UDF secured 41 seats and the DIC (K) secured one seat. The LDF got 48.63 percent of the votes poled and the UDF got 42.98 percent. The difference between the two fronts was 5.65 percentage points.

The 21st ministry headed by Shri. Oommen Chandy as Chief Minister was sworn in by His Excellency R.S.Gavai, Governor of Kerala on 23rd May 2011. The UDF lead ministry includes Shri. P. K. Abdu Rabb, Shri. Adoor Prakash, Shri. A. P. Anilkumar, Shri. Aryadan Mohammed, Shri. K. Babu, Shri. C. N. Balakrishnan, Shri. V. K. Ebrahim Kunju, Shri. K. B. Ganesh Kumar, Shri. T. M. Jacob, Kumari P. K. Jayalekshmi, Shri. K. C. Joseph, Shri. P. J. Joseph, Shri. P. K. Kunhalikutty, Shri. K. M. Mani, Shri. K. P. Mohanan, Dr. M. K. Muneer, Shri. Shibu Baby John, Shri. V .S. Sivakumar and Shri. Thiruvanchoor Radhakrishnan.

The seat of Shri. T. M. Jacob, in the Legislative Assembly of the Kerala State, elected from Piravom Assembly Constituency became vacant on 30-10-2011 following his death and a bye- election was held on 17 March 2012 for the purpose of filling the vacancy.

Shri. Manjalamkuzhi Ali of Muslim League representing the constituency of Perinthalmanna and Shri. Anoop Jacob of the Kerala Congress (Jacob) representing Piravom were sworn in as ministers in 21st ministry on 12.04.2012.

Sri. K. B. Ganesh Kumar, of Kerala Congress (B), a single-MLA constituent of the ruling UDF, resigned from the Council of Ministers on 1 April 2013 on personal issues.

Representing Haripad Constituency Sri. Ramesh Chennithala sworn was in as Home Minister on 1 January 2014.

Following the demise of G. Karthikeyan, Sri. N. Sakthan elected as the Speaker on 12 March 2015. Subsequently a bye–election was held in the Aruvikkara Legislative Assembly constituency on 27 June 2015. Sri. K. S. Sabarinadhan, son of former Speaker G. Karthikeyan, won the election and took affirmation on 1 July 2015 as a member of 13th Kerala Legislative Assembly.

With respect to the outcome of Assembly Elections held on 16 May 2016, Oommen Chandy led UDF ministry tendered its resignation to the Hon'ble Governor of Kerala Shri. Justice P. Sathasivam on 20 May 2016.

The new LDF-led ministry headed by Shri. Pinarayi Vijayan as Chief Minister assumed power on 25th May 2016. The Hon'ble Governor of Kerala Shri. Justice P. Sathasivam administered the oath of office and secrecy to minister-designates at the swearing-in ceremony held at the Central Stadium in Thiruvananthapuram. . Other cabinet members are Shri. E. P. Jayarajan, Shri. Dr. T. M. Thomas Isaac, Shri. G. Sudhakaran, Shri. A. K. Balan, Smt. K. K. Shylaja, Shri. Prof. Ravindranath, Shri. Kadakampally Surendran, Shri. T. P. Ramakrishnan, Shri. A. C. Moitheen, Smt. J. Mercykutty Amma, Shri. K. T. Jaleel, Shri. E. Chandrasekharan, Shri. V. S. Sunil Kumar, Shri. P. Thilothaman, Shri. K. Raju, Shri. Ramachandran Kadannappally, Sri. A. K. Saseendran and Shri. Mathew T. Thomas.

Shri. E. P. Jayarajan, Minister for Industries and Commerce, Sports and Youth Affairs tendered resignation from the Council of Ministers on 14 October 2016.

Shri. A. K. Saseendran, Minister for Transport tendered resignation from the Council of Ministers on 26 March 2017. Shri. Thomas Chandy, MLA from Kuttanad Legislative Assembly in Alappuzha district was sworn in as minister on 01 April 2017. On 15 November 2017 Shri. Thomas Chandy, Minister for Transport resigned from the Council of Ministers.

Monuments-peeping into the past

Monuments are great tellers of History. Volumes they speak on culture, tradition and socio-political scenes in days of yore. The protected monuments come under the administration of Archaeology Department of Kerala. Some of the popular monuments in various districts of Kerala are:

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

PADMANABHAPURAM

Padmanabhapuram Palace is an ancient historical monument representing the indigenous architectural features; especially the traditional style of southern Kerala. The palace is situated in the centre of the Padmanabhapuram fort with an area of 186 acres amidst hills, dales and rivers. All the buildings in it are elegantly designed and display a simplicity of architectural style characterised by pointed gables, dormer windows and long corridors. The earliest of structures was built sometime in 1335 AD. The most noteworthy edifices are the Entrace Hall (Poomukham), the Council Chamber (Mantrasala), the Natakasala (Theatre Hall), the Pooja Mandapa (place of worship), the Saraswathy shrine and above all the Uppirikka Malika (storeyed building) which contains well preserved mural paintings. In the southern side of the main complex of Padmanabhapuram Palace but outside the compound wall there is a small palace. It is actually a traditional building in the style of a nalukettu. This wonderful architectural elegance shows the beauty of our domestic architecture. Now a Heritage museum is housed in this building. Padmanabhapuram was the capital of erstwhile Travancore State till 1792. Now it is in Thakkala village of Kanyakumari district in Tamilnadu State. But the Palace and adjacent area of 6.5 acres of land is placed under the control of the Govt. of Kerala .

PANDAVANPARA

Pandavanpara is a monument protected by a kind of granite pagoda like natural rock facing west and covers an area of about 96 cents, situated between two huge boulders on a hillock sufficiently spacious to accommodate nearly fifty people. This peculiar shelter has engravings on its walls and especially in the lower portion of the entrance. The engravings at the entrance are mostly floral while on the interior some human figures could be seen in the hunting posture with bow and arrow. This particular characteristic of engraving and polishing in the gate show that this work was executed most probably by the Neolithic people.

KOIKKAL KOTTARAM

The Koikkal palace at Nedumangad is famous in history as the residence of the Perakom collateral branch of the ancient Venad Dynasty. This palace shows the general architectural characteristics of a typical old and influential Kerala house. The gabled roof, the corridors, the nalukettu style and the mainly wooden character of its construction that are seen in the Koikkal palace representing the stylistic perfection of the medieval architecture of southern Kerala. Now a folklore and Numismatic museum, the first of its kind in Kerala has been set up by the Archaeology Department. The rich and varied collection of musical instruments, occupational implements, household utensils, models of folk art forms and rare ancient coins etc. displayed here represent the rich cultural heritage of the past. Located in Nedumangad Taluk, Thiruvananthapuram District.

BHAGAVATHY TEMPLE VIZHINJAM

This ancient Devi (sapta matrukkal) temple is in a square plan representative of the Chola type. The base pillars are in stone. The super structure is in the shape of a dome. It is a simple structure with sanctum sanctorum and ardhamandapa. The temple dates back to 9th and 10th century A.D. It is the earliest structural temple in Kerala. The temple is situated at Kottukkal village in Thiruvananthapuram district.

MADAVOORPARA ROCK CUT TEMPLE

Rock-cut temples are one of the main styles of Kerala architecture during the period from 7 to 9 century AD. This cave temple is found at the mid-height of the rock, facing southwest. It has an oblong shrine, with rock-cut linga, an ardhamandapa and pillared facade. The left wall of the ardhamondapa carries the figure of Lord Ganapathy and on the right side, there is a figure of the local chieftain. The temple roughly dates back to 850 A.D and is situated at Iroopara village in Thiruvananthapuram district.

AYYIPILLA ASAN & AYYINIPILLA ASAN SMARAKOM

Ayyipilla Asan is the author of Ramakadha Pattu, one of the epics in ancient Malayalam poetry and Ayyinipilla Asan, his brother is the author of Mavaratha Pattu, another literary work in ancient Malayalam. Considering the cultural and historical impotance, a small edifice for the family deity of the celebrated ancient poets of Kerala has been declared as protected monument in 1987. It is a small shrine with an extension. There is no particular idol in the sanctum sanctorum and the temple is situated in the Vizhinjam village of Thiruvananthapuram District.

NEERAMONKARA TEMPLE

This Siva temple belongs to the 14th Century A.D. It is in circular Dravida style raised on a circular paved disc, which forms the outer path of Circumambulation. The temple has an inner covered ambulatory in addition to the one in the open. This lies behind the circular wall. The inner wall of this inner ambulatory is square and is surmounted by an octagonal dome. The central shrine containing a linga is built of laterite and between it and the circular prakara wall, there are pillars, two on each side of the four sides. The temple is situated at Nemom village in Thiruvananthapuram district.

VISHNU TEMPLE ARUVIKARA

The temple is of circular vimana with granite adhistana and plastered wall. The whole structure has been renovated. Considering its structural peculiarity the temple is declared as a protected monument from 28-9-1966 onwards. Location : Maranallur village (Neyyattinkara Taluk) in Thiruvananthapuram District.

THRIVIKRAMANGALAM TEMPLE

This Mahavishnu temple is famous for its sculptural extravagance. The temple appears to be very old. Certain sculptures in front of the temple depict chola features of the 11th and the 12th centuries. The figures of Dwarapalakas, Singers and Mridangists and the exquisite dance posses on the balustrade to the lateral steps, leading to the sanctum sanctorum are worth to be mentioned. Considering the artistic and cultural importance the temple with 47 cents of land, it was declared as a protected monument in 1965. Location: Thirumala village in Thiruvananthapuram District.

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM FORT

The Thiruvananthapuram Fort is built around Sree Padmanabha Swami Temple, which was the centre of many historical events. Even though the work was started in 1747, during the reign of Marthandavarma Maharaja, the fort was completed by Karthika Thirunal Dharma Raja in 1787 A.D. The height of the fort is about 15 ft. It was built in accordance with the plan of Thaikkad Vishnuthrathan Namboothiri, a famous architect of that period. The fort has four main gaeways viz. kizhakke kotta (East Fort), padinjare kotta (west fort), thekke kotta (south fort) and vadakke kotta (north fort). In addition to these there are gateways at Sreevaraham, Sree Kandeswaram and Vettimuricha Kotta in the southeastern side. Considering the stuctural and historical value, in 1985 the Fort and Fort gates were declared as protected monuments by the Department of Archaeology. Location: Thiruvananthapuram District.

THIRUNARAYANAPURAM TEMPLE

A structural temple of 14th century A.D. The adhistana (foundation) and wall are of granite. Square vimana, tritala type of super structure, cloister namaskara mandapa etc. are the main features of this temple. It is a sikara type having a combination of the early Vijayanagara style of architecture with local forms and features. The carvings especially of the namaskaramandapa shows the characteristic of early Vijayanagara style. The temple is situated at Ottoor village in Thiruvananthapuram District.

KOLLAM

KOTTUKAL ROCK CUT TEMPLE

The Kottukal rock-cut temple represents an outstanding and typical example for the rock-cut temple style of Kerala. It has two cells on either side with Sivalingas in each with a projection carrying the figure of Lord Ganapathy at the centre. The mukhamandapa of the large cell has two pillars carved in rock. The wall of the mukhamandapa carries a figure of Lord Ganapathy. There is a monolithic Nandi in each cave. One of the recess of the sanctum sanctorum carries the figure of Lord Hanuman near the monolithic Nandi, probably intended to recollect the Nandi-vanara episode in the Ramayana. It is dated to the 8 and 9th centuries A.D. Kerala government declared it as a protected monument in 1966. The temple is situated at Ittiva village in Kottarakkara taluk.

MADAN KAVU

Mangadu is a megalithic site situated 8 km. northeast of Kollam town. The site is located very near to 'madan kavu', a small traditional temple. This urn burial site is demarcated on the surface with uneven blocks of laterite with an area of approximately 10 x 10 m. The stone blocks form three circles and are in slanting position.

CHENNAMATH TEMPLE

This old Siva temple has circular 'vimana'. It is 'ekathala alpavimana'. It is of 'sandhara' type. Two armed 'dwarapalakas' in stone work is seen here on the flanks of the main entrance. The 'bali pita' is on the outside of the 'prakara' door on the eastern side. It is a unitary temple but with an interesting array of 'kostha devadas' on the wall. The windows are set within the pilastered divisions of the wall. It is an early medieval Kerala type temple and is situated at Meenad village in Kollam district.

SUSPENSION BRIDGE PUNALUR

The suspension bridge spanning the Kallada River in Punalur is the only one of its kind in south India and it is 400 ft. long. As this bridge erected in 1877 was found to be not strong enough, to cope with the mounting flow of passenger and goods traffic, a new concrete bridge has been constructed nearby. The suspension bridge is now of archaeological interest only. Its construction was commenced in 1871 -72 and completed in 1877-78 AD. Location: Punalur village in Pathanapuram Taluk.

PATHANAMTHITTA

ROCK CUT TEMPLE, THRIKKAKUDY

It is the oldest cave temple in Kerala. It belongs to the latter half of the 8th centruy AD, if not earlier, as suggested by its close resemblance to later Pallava work. The cave is 19 feet 8 inches broad and 8 feet 6 inches high. Two pillars, 8 feet 8 inches in height, divide the breadth of the cave into three openings, two of which are 5 feet broad with the the other only 4 feet 8 inches. The central shrine is a cylindrical rock-cut linga. The entrance faces west. Inside the square 'garbhagriha', Sivalinga is fixed on a rectangle peeta. Two 'dwarapalaka' (sentinel) figures are seen. One of them is of a local chieftain and the other carrying 'gada' (maze). On the north and south walls of the 'ardha' (half) mandapa, there is a figure of Chathurbhuja Ganapathi and a 'bhikshu' respectively. Location: Thiruvalla taluk in Pathanamthitta District.

ALAPPUZHA

NARASIMHA TEMPLE, CHATHANKULANGARA

This beautiful temple contains many wooden sculptures, which are considered to be of 14th century AD. The temple structure is 'chaturasra alpavimana'. 'Nirandhara' type, although having a passage around the sanctum. Above the granite 'adhistana' (foundation) the outerwall is ornamented with 21 panels of different wooden sculptures of deities and 'puranic' scenes. Dwarapalakas on both sides. 'Bali pita' is well outside the inner scheme. 'Dhwajastambha' is in the open. The temple is situated at Chengannoor taluk in Alappuzha district.

BUDDHA IMAGE AT KRISHNAPURAM PALACE

This Buddha image is of 96 cm in height. It is in a yogic posture. 'Jvala' (flame) and the upper cloth on the left shoulder which spread over the chest with many foldings is very clear. It is datable to the 9th century A.D. This image found from Maruthoor Kulangara near Karunagappally and is now in a better state of protection. Location: Karthikapally taluk in Alappuzha district.

BUDDHA IMAGE AT MAVELIKKARA

This Buddha image is about 3 feet high, including the pedestal upon which it is seated. It has the 'jvala', 'usnisha' and the upper cloth over the chest to indicate its Buddhist character. The sculpture shows highly skilled craftsmanship in depicting the characteristic ornamentations. The 'jvala' is prominent. The image is in a yogic posture and is datable to the 9th century A.D. Location: Mavelikkara village in Alappuzha district.

BUDDHA IMAGE AT KARUMADI

This image of Buddha is popularly known as Karumadikkuttan. It is made of black stone. It has a broken left hand. Several local stories are associated with the installation of the image at the site. The 'usnisha', 'jvala' and traces of the upper cloth passing over the chest indicates that it is a Budha image. It is about 3ft. high and in a yogic posture. It is datable to the 8th century A.D. It was declared as protected monument in 1965 with 10 cents of land around it. Location: Ambalappuzha taluk in Alappuzha district.

BUDDHA IMAGE AT BHARANIKAVU

This Buddha image, executed very elegantly with the upper cloth, particularly the many folded part of it passing over the left shoulder and lying flat on the chest. The 'usnisha' and 'jvala' are prominent. It is in a yogic posture. Presently, the image is inside the compound of Bharanikavu Badrakali temple. It was declared as protected monument by Travancore Government in 1941 and is situated at Kattanam village in Alappuzha district.

KRISHNAPURAM PALACE

This palace is the best example for the Kerala style architectural buildings, especially the residence of local chieftains and royal palaces of Travancore. Its gabled roof, narrow stair - cases, dormer windows, heavy doors, narrow corridors etc. are worth to be mentioned. It carries one of the largest mural paintings of the 18th century school in Kerala, covering an area of 150 sq.ft. An archaeological museum is also accommodated inside the palace. The palace and the surrounding area is declared as protected . Location: Karthikappally Taluk in Alappuzha district.

KOTTAYAM

PUNDAREEKAPURAM DEVASWAM

The temple is of 'chathurasra vimana' having sheet roof. Square 'arthamandapa' has beautiful carvings on the ceiling and having 'dwarapalakas'. Main deity is Vishnu with Sathyabhama seated on Garuda. Beautiful murals are seen on the lime plasted granite walls of the 'garbhagriha'. The temple and the murals dates to AD 17 and 18 centuries and is situated at Vadayar village in Kottayyam taluk.

IDUKKI

MANGALADEVI TEMPLE

The temple complex on the top of the Mangaladevi hills facing the Cumbam valley of Tamilnadu consists of four shrines of different sizes and orientation, confined to a well defined 'prakara' with a fairly large sized 'gopuradwara'. Among the four temple precincts, one is large facing east with a covered 'garbhagriha', 'ardhamandapa' and an open courtyard. There is a sub-shrine with the trunk of an image, the navel of which appears to be that of a female in 'ardha-paryanka' pose. The image is made of soft granite. There are other two sub shrines in the complex. The temple dates to AD 8 and 9 centuries. Considering the historic and Architectural value, the Department of Archaeology declared it as a protected monument in 1983. It is situated in Kumili village of Idukki District.

EZHUTHUPARA

Ezhuthupara at Marayoor is noted for the collection of Pre-historic cave paintings. Pictures in this megalithic art gallery are drawn in two different media consisting of reddish brown soil, containing multicoloured iron minerals and white clay soil. Similar paintings have not been discovered anywhere else in Kerala. Location: Devikulam taluk in Idukki district.

ERNAKULAM

KALLIL ROCK CUT TEMPLE

The unique rock-cut temple at Kallil near Perumbavoor in Ernakulam district, which may be assigned to the peiod after 800 A.D. was originally a Jain shrine. But during the period of the decline of Jainism, it got itself transformed into a Hindu temple, dedicated to Goddess Bhagavathi. On one of the facades of this rock shelter is a carved, unfinished seated image of Mahavira, represented also on the back wall of the cavern.

PAZHOOR PERUMTHRIKKOVIL

It is 'sandhara' type temple with cardinal doors on four sides. The plinth and the wall together are of granite stone work and the rest of timber and sheet roof in circulr vimana. 'Dwarapalakas' are made of wood. Main deity, the sivalinga is facing east. Square 'ardhamandapa' contains beautiful wooden carvings on the ceiling. 'Pranala' is a typical ornate Keral type with standing 'yaksha' bearing at its tip. It has some of the notable examples of old workmanship in wood, illustrating various 'puranic' scenes and figures from the Bhagavata, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The temple can be dated to AD 12th century. Location: Muvattupuzha taluk in Eranakulam district.

PALLIPPURAM FORT

This hexagonal building is the oldest extant European monument in India. It was constructed by the Portuguese in 1503. It is popularly known as Ayakkotta or Alikkotta. In 1663 the Portuguese surrendered it to the Dutch. In 1789, through the strategic diplomacy of Raja Kesava Dasan, the able Devan of the Raja of Travancore, the Fort was purchased by Travancore from the Dutch. Location: Pallipuram village in Kochi taluk.

OORAMANA TEMPLE

This structural temple dates to the 12 and 13th century A.D. It is of circular 'vimana' with granite stone plinth with plastered walls bearing beautiful mural paintings. They include various puranic scenes like Gajendra moksha, Sivathandava, Sastha on hunting, Sreerama Pattabhisheka, the war between Rama and Ravana etc. Main deity is Narasimha Moorthy facing east. 'Pranala' is of the ornate medieval type. 'Dwarapalakas' are painted on the wall. Square 'ardha mandapa' carries beautiful carvings on the wooden ceiling. The temple is situated at Melmuri village in Ernakulam district.

STONE INSCRIPTION (HEBREW)

There is an inscription seen in front of the Jewish synagogue at Chennamangalam. The Hebrew stone inscription having eight lines shows that the synagogue was built in 1615 and the expenditure was met by David Gastiline, one of the leader of the Jews. It was declared as protected monument in 1966 and is situated in north Paravoor taluk of Eranakulam district.

STONE INSCRIPTIONS, CHENNAMANGALAM

Stone inscription lying in the church compound of Vaipikkotta seminary, Chennamangalam.

ARIYITTU VAZHCHA KOVILAKOM

A traditional style 'nalukettu' which was used for the 'ariyittu vazhcha', a ceremony in connection with the coronation of the new heir of Cochin Royal family. The old building in fornt of the Palliyarakavu Bhagavathy temple stands as protected monument . Location: Mattancheri village in Cochin taluk, Ernakulam district.

SIVANARAYANA TEMPLE THIRUNAYATHODE

This 'sandara' temple is of 'vritta vimana'. Granite stone for 'adhistana' and wall. Granite wall is coated with plaster on which murals are seen. Dwarapalakas in stone work are seen on all the four sides. Unified copper roofing for the whole temple and unitary type without any subsidiary shrines. 'Pranala' set in the 'kantha' and supported by a 'gana' figure. Main deity is Sivalingga in front of which is fixed the figures of Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu in the same 'peetha'. The concept is not of Sankara Narayana but of Siva and Vishnu in separate entity having equal importance. The square 'ardha mandapa' has carvings of 'navagraha' on the ceiling. This temple can be dated to the 11th and 12th century AD. Location: Angamali village in Ernakulam district.

MANJAPRA TEMPLE

It is a temple of square 'sikhara' type. The roof and all parts of the 'sreekovil' (sanctum sanctorum) is made of granite rock. Dwarapalakas are of granite. It has 'ghanadwaras' on three sides. The main diety is Lord Vishnu in 'varadamudra'. This figure dates to the 9th and 10th century AD. Idols of Lord Ganapathy, Goddess Bhadrakali, Lord Sastha and Naagar (serpent god) are also seen here. This type of temple is very rare in Kerala. Location: Manjapra village in Aluva Taluk.

ULIYANUR MAHADEVA TEMPLE

This structural temple is in the form of 'vritha vimana' with granite 'adhisthana'. It has a unified tiled roof for the whole temple. The temple is of 'sandhara' type with four cardinal openings with wooden doors, square 'namaskara mandapa' with a granite Nandi inside. 'Bali peetha' is outside the Chuttambalam. Balustrades are of peculiar type and 'pranala' is of unusual pattern with a bull head at the tip and supported by an 'yakshi' figure. Main deity is Sivalinga facing east. The temple dates to the 12th century AD. Considering the structural importance, this ancient temple was declared as protected monument by the Department of Archaeology in 1998. Location: North Paravoor taluk in Ernakulam district.

OLD KACHERI MALIKA - U.C. COLLEGE, ALUVA

The old Kacheri Malika is a beautiful building in which the Alangad Taluk Kacheri functioned under the Travancore kingdom. It is built in a blended style of Indo-European architecture. Since 1922, the Union Christian College has been functioning in this building. Location: Aluva taluk in Ernakulam district.

KOTTAYIL KOVILAKOM

This is a centre of historical importance. The word Kottayil Kovilakom means the palace inside the fort. It is the place where the royal palace of the Villar Vattathu Raja, who ruled over the area of Chennamangalam and adjacent coastal areas was situated. The remains around the old well was declared as protected site in 1936. A Vishnu temple and the remainsof the Vaipikotta seminary are seen nearby this protected site. The Kovilakam is in north Paravoor taluk.

VAIPIKOTTA SEMINARY

The Vaipikotta seminary was built by the Portuguese in 1577. Many 'vattezhuthu' inscriptions were encountered during the exploration done here in 1935. The potteries collected from the nearby areas of the church are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum Thrissur. The seminary with 50 cents of land was declared as protected . Location: Chennamangalam village in north Paravoor taluk.

THRISSUR

SAKTHAN THAMPURAN PALACE

The old Vadakkechira palace was renovated to the present style by Sakthan Thampuran, the famous king of the Perumbadappu dynasty. Now it is known as Sakthan Thampuran palace. It is a two-storied building with a 'nalukettu'. The palace is an exquisite example for the combination of Kerala-Dutch architectural Style. Thick walls, tall ceiling, floor with beautiful Itlian marble tiles and spacious rooms are the pecularities of this building. Now it is a protected monument under the Department of Archaeology. The palace is in Thrissur taluk.

TIPPU'S FLAG STAFF

The flag staff of Tippu Sultan which was erected in 1789 is now protected in front of the Sakthanthampuran palace near the fort wall.

OLD FORTIFICATION

The eastern and western gateway and old fortification around the Sakthan Thampuran Palace are also protectd monuments due to its stylistic importance. TWO IMAGES

Two stone images of Nagaraja and Nagayakshi under the saptaparna tree in Vadakkechira palace (Sakthan Thampuran Palace) compound are protected by the Department.

TOMB OF ZAMORIN

A monument put up at the Vadakkechira palace compound where Zamorin Raja of Calicut was cremated in 1748. TOMB OF SAKTHAN THAMPURAN

A monument put up at the same site where Raja Ramavarma alias Sakthan Thampuran was cremated in 1805. TOMB OF RAMAVARMA RAJA

A monument put up at the palace site where Ramavarma Raja of Cochin was cremated. ANCIENT HOUSE OF ARNOSE PADIRI AND ST. FRANCIS XAVIER FORANE CHURCH

Rev. Joannes Ernesto Hanxleden SJ was one of the most remarkable of scholar missionaries who dedicated their lives to enrich Malayalam literature with their immortal contributions. The German priest, Father Hanxley -den (Arnose Padiri) reached Kerala in 1700 AD. During the thirty years of his life in Kerala, he provided Malayalam with a varied and rich flair. Important among them includes Puthen Pana, Umma Parvam and Malayalam Sanskrit dictionary. His Varthamana Pusthakam is written in chaste prose and is a work of great literary merit. He was a pioneer prose writer in Malayalam. Arnose Padiri built a residence for himself, towards the west of the St. Francis Xavier Forane in Veloor. It is a rectangular two-storied building resembling the pilgrim halls of Hindu temples. The upper storey of the building is supported by nine pillars made of solid rocks and five laterite stones. The church of St. Francis Xavier Forane was constructed by Arnose Padiri in 1724. It is a beautiful monument of Indo-European style. The roof is made in Kerala style with wood and is supported by fine huge wooden beams. The ancient altar and the beautiful murals on the arch surface above it add attraction to the church. The balcony at the back of the main hall of the church having an area of 27 sq m. is supported by wooden elephants. Considering their historical importance, the ancient house of Arnose Padiri and the church of St. Francis Xavier were declared as protected monument in 1995 by the State Archaeology Department. Location: Talappally taluk, Thrissur district

TRIKKUR MAHADEVA TEMPLE

This live rock-cut temple dates to the 8th century A.D. The Sivalinga faces east and the door of the 'garbhagriha' is on the north. There is a sculpture of Lord Ganapathi on the eastern wall. The arrangement of 'dwarapalakas' and other deities are slightly disturbed to suit the terrain of the rock in which the temple and the figures have been carved. The 'linga' is in the centre, fixed on to a rectangular pedestal. There is an evergreen pond on the top of the rock. The temple is situated at Mukundapuram taluk in Thrissur district.

VATTEZHUTHU INSCRIPTIONS

A granite slab with Vattezhuthu inscriptions on it, measuring 6 ft by 4.5 feet can be found in the compound of the Thazhekkad church. A granite slab with a three-line inscription in vattezhuthu measuring about 1 feet by 3/4 feet lying in front of the Sreekovil of the Thazhekkad Siva temple. Location: Mukundapuram taluk, Thrissur district.

MENHIR

A megalithic monument (Menhir type) in granite of 15 feet tall and 12 feet 4 inches broad, standing opposite Anappara on the left side of the Viyyur-Thanikudam Road. Location : Mukundapuram Taluk in Thrissur district.

MONOLITHIC MONUMENT

Monolithic monument (Menhir type) one in standing posture of 12 feet 3 inches tall and 10 feet 6 inches broad. One in lying posture, 6 feet long and 5 feet broad. Both are now inside the Khadi and Village Industries compound at Kuttoor village in Thrissur taluk.

PORKALAM DOLMANS

Three dolmans already excavated by the department. Contents including prehistoric potteries and iron implements were taken to Thrissur Archaeological Museum. The three dolmans with 5 cents of land is located in Thalappaally taluk, Thrissur district.

KOTTAPPURAM FORT

The Kottappuram fort or Cranganoor Fort was built by the Portuguese in 1523 AD. Later it was captured and destroyed by the Dutch in 1662. The remains of the Fort is protected by the Department of Archaeology due to its historical importance. The remaining part of the original fort wall shows that it was built by laterite and was 18 feet in thickness. Location: Kodungalloor taluk in Thrissur district.

ARIYANNOOR TEMPLE

This temple can be dated to AD 14th century. The main deity Hari Kanyaka (Mohini concept) is facing east. The temple has a granite 'adhisthana' with laterite but ornate wall. The murals and sculptures around the 'garbhagriha' have deteriorated. The temple with its walls, ruined 'gopurams', two-storied shrine and broken idol along with its constituent portion including the two 'dwarapalakas' and the wooden images attached to Namaskara Mandapam are declared as protected under the purview of the Protected Monuments Act by the Department of Archaeology in 1936. Location: Thalapally taluk in Thrissur district.

NEDUMKOTTA OR TRAVANCORE LINES

The Travancore lines or Nedumkotta as it was called, ran from the Vypin Island to the Western Ghats and often through Cochin territory. It was mainly a ditch 16 feet broad, 20 feet deep and 56 km long with a bamboo barricade by its side, protected by ramparts and bastions at strategic points. It was bilt during the reign of Marthanda Varma. Dalawa Marthanda Pillai took up the work and captain D' Lannoy personally supervised the constructions. Nedumkotta was destroyed in 1790 during the attack of Tippu Sultan. A portion of the ruined fort is protected at Palamuri and Kottavathil in Thrissur district.

CHERAMAN PARAMBU

The Cheraman Parambu has an area of three acres. It is believed to have been the seat of the palace of Cheraman Perumal. The trial digs conducted in the area has revealed the existence of a number of Chinese shreds along with local potteries. Considering the historical importance the site is declared as protected. Location: Kodungalloor taluk in Thrissur district.

IRUNILAKODE TEMPLE

This is one of the few rock-cut temples in Kerala with a central figure on the wall and dates to AD 8th and 9th centuries. The main deity is Dakshinamoorthy in sitting posture with his left leg placed over the other, with serpents coiling round the body and with an Akshamala, Keyoora and Khadaka on the two upper hands. The 'linga' on the side is believed by the local people as growing in size every day. The temple is situated at Thalappally taluk in Thrissur district.

KIZHTHALI TEMPLE

This is one of the eighteen Thali temples in Kerala dating to the early 13th and 14th century AD. It is dedicated to Lord Siva. The old temple is in ruins and a new structure in its place has been put up. The area is marked by the presence of several broken and damaged idols of gods and goddesses and some of them had been removed to museums. The idol in the structure probably represents the one in the original temple. Location: Methala village in Kodungalloor Taluk.

PALAKKAD

KATTILMADAM

It is a monument dating to the 12th and the 13th century AD. This beautiful granite structure, which is known as Kattilmadam is in Dravida style with octagonal 'griva' and 'sikhara'. Its unique structure having ornated 'sthambha pada', peculiar 'pranala', huge granite pieces used for making the wall and the roof etc. make it worthy to be protected. Location: Ottappalam taluk in Palakkad district.

MALAPPURAM

SREE VENKITATHEVAR TEMPLE

This Siva temple is ornated with beautiful murals on the walls of the 'garbhagriha' and mgnificent wood carvings on the 'griva'. The temple itself is a speciment of indigenous style of temple architecture of the 19th century. The 'garbhagriha' and 'mukhamandapa' are square in form. It has 'dwithala vimana' with sheeted roof and 'dwarapalaka' figures made of wood and 'pranala' with support at the tip. The writings on the wall of the 'garbhagriha' shows that the murals were completed in 1053 M.E. The temple is located at Eranad taluk in Malappuram district.

KOZHIKODE

MONUMENTS INDICATING THE FIRST ARRIVAL OF VASCO-DA-GAMA

Vasco-da-Gama landed at Kappad a few miles north of Kozhikkode on 20th May 1498. It was an event, which was destined to write the name of Kerala in the annals of world history. A monument was erected there to indicate the historical event.

KOTTAKAL KUJALIMARAKKAR'S HOUSE

The house stated to be the residence of the Kottakal Kunjalimarakkar, one of the heroes of Kerala history, is an ordinary single-storied building, built in laterite stones and with thatched roof. It is situated in a garden land measuring 19 cents. The old house must have been destroyed by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The wood works of the existing house are very strong and substantial. They would suggest that they formed part of same old house built previously. Location: Quilandi taluk in Kozhikode district.

TIPPU SULTAN'S FORT

In 1788 Tippu Sultan transferred the capital of the Province of Malabar from Kozhikode to the South bank of Beypore river and built a Fort at the modern village of Feroke. But Tippu's grand project of founding a new capital ended in failure because he was compelled to retire to Coimbatore due to the appraoch of monsoon. Considering the historical importance, a part of the laterite fort remaining at Paramukku, Kottasthala has been declared as protected monument by the Department of Archaeology in 1991. The Fort is in Kozhikode Taluk.

KALPATHOOR PARAVATHA TEMPLE

Main deity of this temples is Kirathamoorthy and it face west. The ancient temple is having granite 'adhistana' with laterite wall. 'Dwarapalakas' are made of wood. 'Pranala' is of usual ornate type with a 'gana' support on its tip. The ceiling of the 'mukhamandapa' and the 'balikal pura' have beautiful wooden carvings. Almost dilapidated eastern 'padippura' carries splendid carvings of miniature figures on its ceiling, depicting different 'puranic' scenes like 'Sree Rama Pattabhishekam', 'Anantha Sayanam', 'Siva Parvathi Parinayam' etc. The temple can be dated to AD14th centruy. Location: Quilandi taluk in Kozhikode district.

WAYANAD

TOM OF VEERA PAZHASSI

The tomb of the celebrated historical giant and reputed warrior Veera Pazhassi is a historical monument that has laid his great memories on the sands of time. It is a protected monument under the Department of Archaeology. A small site museum is also functioning here. Location: Mananthavadi taluk in Wayanad district. Pazhassi Raja: Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja belonged to Kottayam royal family. He revolted againt the British revenue policy by organising the tribals like Kurichiyas and Kurumbas of Wayanad. His strong guerilla warfare could successfully resist the wicked British forces several times. He succeeded in winning the full support of his people in this long war with the foreign power. At last to the ingratitude of someof his fellowmen, the 'Lion of Kerala' had to surrender. But before being captured byt he British he is said to have committed su***de on 30th November 1805. The dead body of the great patriot was brought at Mananthavadi, led by T.H. Baber the then sub-collector of Malabar and buried there with all respect.

CAVE AT EDAKKAL

Ambukuthimala or Edakkalmala is one of the principal hills of Wayanad District. Edakkal cave is found on its Western slope. The cave contains carved figures, some inscription and symbols on the walls. The carvings clearly represent human and animal figures. Human figures with peculiar head dress and 'swasthika' in various forms are distinctly carved. Specimen of circular 'Sun Symbols' and some magic squares are seen engraved on the walls of the cave. It is believed to be the ancient human shelters of 5000 B.C. Location: Sulthan Batheri taluk in Wayanad district. The cave and 50 cents of land has been taken over by the Department of Archaeology and declared as protected monument on 4-7-1985.

KANNUR

THODEEKKULAM SIVA TEMPLE

Thodeekulam Siva Temple is famous for its murals, which seems to belong to the middle stage of Kerala mural tradition, perhaps of AD 10th and the 13th century. The wall of the 'garbhagriha' is of laterite with plaster coating on which murals have been painted. The temple is of 'chathurasra vimana', 'dwithala' with copper roof. No dwarapalakas. Main deity is Sivalinga facing east. Pranala is long and rather simple shaft channel, set mildly carved at the tip. In front of the square 'namaskara mandapa' is a granite Nandi. 'Bali peetha' is in the open. The temple is situated in Thalasseri taluk of Kannur district.

EZHIMALA FORT AT ETTIKULAM

The Ezhimala fort or Ettikulam fort lies about 2 km south of Mount De-eli or Ezhimala. The fort was built by the Portuguese and subsequently held by the French and the English. It consists of three hexagonal prismatic structures, one of which has been completely damaged. the side walls of the fort are of various lengths and are almost ruined. Ezhimala, may be a variation of 'Azhimala', which meant 'the mount near the sea' was the seat of a powerful kingdom, which comprised the whole of the present districts from Wayanad to Kasargod and produced the great warrior king Nannan in the 5th century. In the later days Ezhimala was the capital of Mooshika and Kolathiri Rajas. Location: Thalipparambu taluk in Kannur district.

KASARGOD

POYILKOTTA

This laterite fort was believed to be built by the Bednore Naikans in the 17th century AD. The fort is in complete decay. The remains show that the original fort was eight feet in thickness and more than fifteen feet high. Inside the fort there is a temple and a big pond with steps. Considering the historical importance, the fort with an area of 8.44 acres of land has already been declared as protected monument in 1985 and is situvated at Muliar village in Kasargod taluk.

CHANDRAGIRI FORT

This ancient fort is made of hard laterite stones. It was built by the Sivappa Nayaka of Bednore in the 17th century AD, who established his authority over the area and built a chain of forts. The Chandragiri river on which it rises marked the traditional boundary between Kerala and Thuluva kingdom. The two sides of the fort are facing the sea. There are eight view towers with 'peeranky' (cannon) holes from which the sea route can be guarded closely. The main watch tower faces north. On the eastern and western side there are two underground passages. A deep well and a pond with flight of steps are there inside the fort. The fort with an area of 7.76 acres is located at Kalnad village in Kasargod taluk.

PILICODE CAVE

It is a megalithic site having an area of 3 acres 28 cents. A number of rock-cut tombs found in this laterite zone are of archaeological value. The cave is at Hosdurg taluk in Kasargod district.

LIST OF MUSEUMS UNDER THE KERALA ARCHAEOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Padmanabhapuram Palace Museum, Thuckalai, Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu.

Folklore Museum at Koikkal Palace, Nedumangadu, Thiruvananthapuram District

Kottarakkara Thampuran Memmorial Museum for Classical Arts, Kottarakkara, Kollam District

Krishnapuram Palace Museum, Kayamkulam, Alappuzha District

Hill Palace Museum, Thrippunithura, Ernakulam District

Archaeological Museum, Kollangodu House, Thrissur

Pazhassi Raja Museum, East Hill, Kozhikode