07/06/2026
Activity Patterns and Predator–Prey Temporal Overlap in the High Tiger-Density Area Bardia National Park, Nepal
Authors:: Bishnu Prasad Shrestha, Joost De Jong, Anouschka R. Hof, Naresh Subedi, Arjun Bhusal, Frank Van Langevelde
Prey activity patterns are believed to be influenced by, among others, daily and seasonal weather conditions and predation risk. Similarly, predator activities may also be influenced by the same daily and seasonal weather conditions and behavior of prey. Yet there is little research on activity patterns and temporal overlap of predators and prey in tropical regions with strong seasonality and high predator density. To (1) assess the temporal overlap in activity patterns between an apex predator and its main prey in an area of high predator density, and (2) examine the effects of seasonality and prey body size on this overlap, we analyzed data from a 5-year camera trap survey. We estimated daily activity patterns and assessed temporal overlap between the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), an apex predator, and their primary prey: chital (Axis axis), sambar (Rusa unicolor), muntjac (Muntiacus muntjac), and hog deer (Axis porcinus) in Bardia National Park (BNP), a protected area in Nepal with a high density of tigers. We collected camera trap data from May 2019 to April 2024 using 50 camera traps deployed vertically in a 1.4 km × 1.4 km grid in BNP. Our findings indicate that tigers and sambar showed cathemeral activity patterns, whereas hog deer exhibited diurnal patterns, and muntjac and chital displayed crepuscular patterns. Both tigers and deer species, except hog deer, reduced their activity during the hottest parts of the day. There was substantial overlap in activity patterns between tigers and deer, which presents challenges for deer in avoiding predation. This lack of temporal segregation is likely driven by high tiger density. The activity patterns of tigers were consistent across the seasons, whilst those of the deer species were not, suggesting that predator–prey interactions are shaped by ecological factors as well as seasonal weather conditions. These insights of tiger-prey interactions have management implications for the conservation of tigers in Nepal.
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