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Islamically, Hangu (2025)

13/03/2025

M A K K A H 🖤

13/03/2025

Hazrat Yunus (AS)ka waqia

15/09/2023

Admissions 2023-24 of Malakand
BS Geology(4-Years)
Closing date: September 26, 2023
Link for online Apply👇
https://uom.edu.pk/

04/06/2023

June 4, 1889, birthday of German-American geophysicist & seismologist Beno Gutenberg. He was a mentor and colleague of Charles Francis Richter at the California Institute of Technology. Together they developed the Richter magnitude scale for measuring an earthquake's magnitude/energy.

Using seismic waves he also studied Earth's inner structure. Travel speed, refraction and direction of seismic waves depends on density and chemical properties of the material they traverse. Analyzing seismic records and noting how some seismic waves were reflected or slowed down he determined the depth of the core-mantle boundary roughly at 3.000km. He suggested that this change of wave velocity is explained by different chemical properties. The mantle is composed mostly of Fe-Mg-silicates (like Olivine, in this example as xenolithes in basaltic lava), the core of an iron-nickel compound.

The upper limit of the Gutenberg-discontinuity( or D'') - Earth's core-mantle boundary at ~3.000km depth - was named after him , as is the Gutenberg zone - a zone of reduced seismic waves velocity at a depth of ca. 15-25km in Earth's crust, marking the boundary layer between the rigid lithosphere and the ductile asthenosphere.

20/05/2023

Raw and mean values of oxygen isotopes from phosphatic and carbonate fossils for reconstructing tropical sea surface temperatures over the past 500 million years.

12/04/2023

Basic types of igneous intrusions:
1. Laccolith
2. Small d**e
3. Batholith
4. D**e
5. Sill
6. Volcanic neck and pipe
7. Lopolith.
A batholith (from Ancient Greek bathos 'depth', and lithos 'rock') is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock (also called plutonic rock), larger than 100 km2 (40 sq mi) in area, that forms from cooled magma deep in Earth's crust. Batholiths are almost always made mostly of felsic or intermediate rock types, such as granite, quartz monzonite, or diorite (see also granite dome).

09/04/2023

Map showing the main rock units of Al-Madinah AI-Munawar, centre of Saudi desert. Based on the rock types and age of formation can be classified generally into four major units; (a) The Precambrian rock unit, 800-690 Ma, consists commonly of mafic extrusive igneous rocks, such as andesite that composed of plagioclase with hornblende, pyroxene and biotite; acidic igneous rocks like rhyolite that typically contains quartz and feldspar minerals. This unit is passing upward into volcanic tuffs, breccias and a variety of poorly sorted epiclastic rocks. The rocks of this unit are widely spreading to the north and west of Al-Madinah AI-Munawarah basin. For example, the Mount Uhud (جبل احد) (1077 m above sea level), which constitutes a well-known feature enclosing the city from north and northeast, belongs to this old geologic unit, and it is composed basically of rhyolite rocks. (b) The second Precambrian unit, 690-610 Ma, is lying uncomfortably over the older rocks of the first unit, and it consists chiefly of igneous mafic rocks such as andesite, basalt, volcanic tuffs and breccias with sandstone, conglomerates, graywacke and clays. The main distribution of this unit is to the southwest and northeast of Al-Madinah basin. (c)The third unit which represents "plutonic intrusive rocks" resulted mainly from deep-seated plutonic hot lava that injected through and mixed together with the previously mentioned geological rock units. This complex processes led to the formation of new kinds of plutonic intrusive igneous unit that crystallized with slow cooling below Earth's surface. Such genesis processes allow the formation of rocks with large crystal textures including granite, diorite, pegmatite, peridotite and gabbro complexes. Afterwards, the region was subjected to various geotectonic deformation processes due to folding, faulting and other tectonic activities associated with common occurrences of intrusive igneous d**es and batholith bodies.The geology of AI-Madinah AI-Munawarah is distinguished by the extensive occurrence of (d)
Harrats features which represent Tertiary to Quaternary volcanic flows that are composed basically of basalts and andesite rocks. (Source: Saudi Geological Survey (SGS))

30/03/2023

In a letter dated to March 30, 1759, Italian mining engineer Giovanni Arduino (1714-1795) proposed to the physician and fossil collector Prof. Antonio Vallisnieri to subdivide Earth’s crust in various classes or epochs of rocks ⚒ - the first step to our modern chronostratigraphic charts.

Naturalists before Arduino used terms like "Primary Mountains" but didn't really consider a temporal order or apply this principle to all rock formations.

Based on his observations along the foothills of the Alps, Arduino recognized a temporal order with four rock-layers or epochs: unstratified or poorly stratified crystalline rocks deposited first (or “Primary Rocks“, survived into the 20th century as “Paleozoic“ epoch), stratified limestone and sandstone rocks with fossils (“Secondary Rocks“, or “Mesozoic“), more recent poorly stratified and unconsolidated sediments (“Tertiary Rocks“ or Cenozoic) and finally all volcanic rocks and sediments deposited in valleys, which he believed to be the youngest and most recent (the now outdated "Quaternary")

21/03/2023

MUD VOLCANOES
A mud volcano is a formation that created by any geo-excreted gases and liquids usually found in subduction zones but they are also common near petroleum deposits It is also possible to find them near other types of volcanoes. ,Most of the gases that are released from a mud volcano are methane although they also release much smaller quantities of nitrogen and carbon dioxide.This type of volcano has a similar shape to other types of volcanoes and contains several cones. The gryphon is cone with steep sides that is shorter in height than 3 meters and will emit mud while the mud cone is less than 10 meters and will emit both rock fragments and mud.

22/01/2023

The crust of Earth is constantly moving and changing because of pressures applied by tectonic plates pushing against each other, pulling away from each other, and sliding past each other. This movement of the crust causes fractures to form in the layers of rock, also called a fault. This fault can be as small as a few millimeters or as long as thousands of kilometers. The rock break or deform along the fault plane. Fault lines are where this plane meets the surface of the crust. Repeated displacements of rock can occur over time at the same fault. Sometimes this movement of the rock faces can be at a very slow pace. It can be so slow that it is not noticed except when looked at over a long span of geologic time. We call this slow movement of rock creep, because it creeps along. But some of the time these rock faces move at irregular intervals that can be rather quick. When rock faces are trying to move past each other they often get caught on the uneven cracks and build up pressure before finally slipping past each other with a large release of energy and a noticeable movement of the ground. We call this moving of the ground and release of energy an earthquake. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the crust of the Earth at a fault line. The edges of the tectonic plates are boundaries with fault lines that produce earthquakes. A famous and noticeable group of fault lines is the Ring of Fire, the path along several tectonic plates around the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by volcanic activity and frequent earthquakes. Around ninety percent of the Earths earthquakes occur along fault lines in the Ring of Fire.

19/12/2022

UNCONVENTIONAL GAS
1. Tight Gas sands:
a. Low permeability sandstone reservoir that produces primarily dry natural gas.
b. Cannot be produced at an economic flow rate without massive assistance from large stimulation treatments of any special recovery process.
2. Coal Bed Methane
a. CBM is methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal.
b. CBM is formed during the process of coalification, the transformation of plant material into coal.
c. It occurs in underground coal mines where it presents a serious safety risk.
3. Shale Gas
a. Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations.
b. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
c. Shale gas is trapped within the pores of this sedimentary rock.
4. Gas Hydrates
a. Gas hydrates are a crystalline solid formed of water and gas.
b. It looks and acts much like ice, but it contains huge amounts of methane
c. it exists in huge quantities in marine sediments in a layer several hundred meters thick directly below the sea floor and in association with permafrost in the Arctic.
d. It is not stable at normal sea-level pressures and temperatures

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06/12/2022

(OIL AND GAS TRAPS)

Oil and gas traps, sometimes referred to as petroleum traps are below ground traps where a permeable reservoir rock is covered by some low permeability cap rock. This combination of rock can take several forms, but they all prevent the upward migration of oil and natural gas up through the reservoir rock.

There are 2 types of petroleum traps; Structural and Stratigraphic traps.

A Structural Trap is that which forms as a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface due to tectonic, diaperic, gravitational and compactional processes. These changes block the upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead to the formation of a petroleum reservoir.

3 types of structural traps exist:
✓ Anticline traps, where strata have been pulled to form a domed shape,
✓ Fault Trap, formed by the movement of permeable and impermeable layers of rock along a fault line and
✓ Salt Dome Trap, formed as a result of below ground salt - which is less dense than the rock above it - moving upwards slowly.

Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in the thickness, texture, porosity or lithology of the reservoir rock. Examples of Stratigraphic traps are Unconformity, Lens and Reef Traps.

Stratigraphic traps are divided into 2 main groups:
✓ Primary Traps that result from variations in facies that developed during sedimentation.
✓ Secondary Traps that result from variations that developed after sedimentation mainly because of diagenesis.

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