The Asian Life

15/10/2023

Library in the skyline

14/10/2023

Cloud an buildings.

13/10/2023

Lingshan Island

12/10/2023

Guess where?

11/10/2023

10/10/2023

Blue sky in Nansha

09/10/2023

The Lighthouse in Nanshan，Guanagzhou

08/10/2023

Nansha Guangzhou

02/07/2023

【Examining the Characteristics of Chinese Perception of Rome through Historical Records】
Authur：Xizhi LIU（刘西沚）
The depictions of Rome in Chinese historical sources reflect both an objective portrayal of ancient Roman history, culture, and society, as well as an interpretation influenced by China's own historical and cultural context. Group cognition typically emerges as a composite of individual perceptions. Historical sources indicate that the Chinese viewed Rome as a highly developed civilization. Chinese records depict Rome as possessing advanced transportation and agriculture, similar to China. Additionally, Rome is noted for its abundant resources and products, particularly in commerce and maritime trade, and a relatively incorrupt and democratic political system.

The variation of Roman contents in ancient China varied depending on the stability and strength of domestic political rule across different dynastic eras and the extent of its external communication. The ancient Chinese perception of Rome evolved and persisted with the succession of dynasties. As previously demonstrated, dynasties with close official relations with the Western regions or engaged directly with Roman envoys or merchants had more written content about Rome, the extent of its external communication and international interactions often stemmed from political and military imperatives between the ruling regime and countries in the Western regions. Conversely, dynasties without significant news regarding Rome selectively excerpted or reduced Rome-related content from preceding dynasty's historical records. For example, the Tang Dynasty experienced an increased volume of records pertaining to various facets of Rome. This surge can be attributed to the engagement with Nestorian Christians, resulting in an augmentation of content encompassing military and religious aspects concerning the Eastern Roman Empire, building upon the foundation laid during the Han Dynasty.

Ancient China demonstrated a generally open and inclusive attitude towards Rome, showing a particular interest in the economic aspects of the distant and prominent Western empire. Chinese official historical records in ancient times frequently display biased depictions by the Han ethnicity, centered on their own rule, referring to neighboring foreign ethnic groups as "barbarians." The Han people displayed a predisposition for negatively evaluating the moral values, customs, and economic practices of southern islanders and northwest nomadic tribes. In contrast, their descriptions of Rome were devoid of derogatory labels or negative depictions. This may be possibly influenced by positive associations with distant Western Regions' commodities and attributed a sense of respect towards this Western imperial, seen as another center of civilization in the world and comparable in civilization to the Han and Tang dynasties.

01/07/2023

【The Contents and Variation of Roman Records in Chinese Official Histories from the Han through the Tang】
Authur：Xizhi LIU（刘西沚）
Chinese official dynastic histories involving records related to Rome can be roughly divided into three periods based on chronological characteristics. In the first phase, which predates the 5th century, the early official historical sources served as the initial encounters with the Roman Daqin, including works such as Hou Hanshu (后汉书)[ The Hanshu 汉书 introduces 230-year historical events from 206 BC to 23 AD, being basically completed by Ban Gu 班固 (206-24 BC) in 83 BC.], Weilue (魏略) and Jinshu (晋书). The term "Daqin" first appeared in the Hou Hanshu (the Book of the Later Han) and was mentioned 12 times throughout the work. During the Han Dynasty in China, the ruling class gradually recognized the significance of the Western Regions through their struggles against the Xiongnu. As a result, they embarked on efforts to establish communication and engagement with various ethnic groups in the Western Regions, seeking military and political cooperation. Hou Hanshu also records that General Ban Chao (班超), stationed in the Western Regions, appointed Gan Ying (甘英) as an envoy to Daqin, hoping to establish an alliance with the Roman Empire to combat the military threats posed by the Huns jointly. After passing through the Parthian border, they planned to cross the sea. However, the Parthians stopped them from proceeding, deceiving them about the dangers of a long and perilous sea voyage. They also mentioned that something in the sea could cause homesickness and even death. As a result, Gan Ying and his companions had to abandon their plans to reach Daqin.

Although Gan Ying's journey failed, he provided valuable insights into the transportation routes and the cultural traits of ethnic groups along the Western Regions. As a result, the term Daqin officially entered the official vision at that time. Another event In 166 A.D., King Andun (安敦, possibly known as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) of the Daqin Empire sent a messenger with gifts to China through the Rinan route. Hou Hanshu introduced the travel routes to the westernmost country known as "Daqin," providing substantial descriptions of Daqin's economic trade and products and its political and administrative management. It delved into the currency system[ In the book Hou Hanshu, ancient Chinese recorded that "The Daqin State uses gold and silver currencies. One gold coin was worth ten silver coins" (Hou Hanshu, vol. 88 Xiyuzhuan, §.26). Roman and Byzantine coins, including imitations, have been found in various places such as Vietnam (a total of 10 imitative Roman coins featuring "ANTONINVS" were unearthed), Indonesia (54 coins), and Cambodia's Angkor Borei (13 coins). These coins served as currency or decorative items. In China (97 coins, with 41 identified), Byzantine coins were abundant during the reigns of Anastasius I Dicorus and Justinian I but declined during the reign of Heraclius I.], trade conditions[ It usually made ten times more profit through trade with Anxi (Parthia) and Tianzhu (India), while the people of Daqin were relatively honest. The prices in the domestic market were relatively uniform. In addition, their food prices were relatively cheap, and the country was rich" (Hou Hanshu, vol. 88 Xiyuzhuan, §.27).

Subsequently, the Weilue presented the most comprehensive and detailed content regarding Rome, encompassing a substantial length of 1,750 characters. In contrast, the account provided in the Hou Hanshu was significantly shorter, consisting of only 941 characters. In 226, Sun Quan (孙权) granted an audience to Qin Lun (秦论), a merchant who claimed to be from Rome. Qin Lun had lived in China for over a decade, and Sun Quan even sent an official named Liu Xian (刘咸) to accompany Qin Lun on his return journey to Rome. Regrettably, Liu Xian passed away halfway through the trip. Notably, Qin Lun traveled to and from China by sailing and entering through Vietnam. The shipbuilding industry in Wu was highly developed during the Three Kingdoms period, and many large merchant ships were built. Besides, Rulers like Sun Quan also displayed an open diplomatic approach and engaged with various Southeast Asian countries, which helped form and facilitate the maritime Silk Road. The contents documented in Weilue are more comprehensive than Other works, particularly in their detailed descriptions of the various goods originating from Daqin and its vassal states.

In Jinshu, it is evident that the direct mention of Daqin drastically reduced to 310 characters. Although the Jin Dynasty still controlled significant northwest cities like Dunhuang in Xinjiang, the internal conflicts during the Three Kingdoms period weakened the central authority's control over the Western Regions. The Jin Dynasty's court naturally shifted its attention towards those emerging nomadic kingdoms, leaving limited capacity to focus on the faraway Roman Empire. Jinshu's content on Rome is mostly an excerpt from previous works such as Hou Hanshu and Weilue, the information presented is almost identical to what was already available.

During the 5th to 7th century, the second phase marked a transition in understanding Roman names from Daqin to Fulin. This transition is evident in three major historical texts: Songshu (宋书), Liangshu (梁书), and Weishu (魏书). These texts contain relatively few references to Rome, with characters counts of 172, 239, and 325, respectively. In the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420 CE), the imperial court moved its capital from Luoyang to Nanjing. This decision had several consequences: it distanced the court from conflicts in the north. However, it relinquished control over trade routes to the Western Regions and gradually lost information about Western countries. However, records in the Songshu and the Liangshu indicate that the southern maritime route became more critical with the advancement of maritime technology. Mediterranean commodities like glassware as evidence were excavated in southern Chinese provinces such as Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Guangxi.

As the first minority ethnic regime in the Chinese official account, the Northern Wei government aimed to enhance the legitimacy ruling by documenting its history in Weishu. Thank to their reconnecting with certain countries in the Western Regions, Weishu is one of the earliest sources to capture the shift from Roman to Eastern Roman (Byzantine) realms, covering the period from 386 CE to 550 CE, coinciding with Byzantine history from the death of Theodosius I to the reign of Justinian. However, they did not realize that different names for the Eastern Roman Empire, like Pulan (普岚), Fuluni (伏卢尼), or Fulin, all referred to the same entity as Daqin (Roman Empire) at that time, resulting in separate biographies for each name.

During the third phase after the 7th century, the references to "Rome" had transformed into predominantly focusing on the Byzantine Empire as Fulin. This shift is reflected in official historical works such as Suishu (隋书), Beishi (北史), Jiu Tangshu (旧唐书), and Xin Tangshu (新唐书). In the latter two, the direct descriptions of Rome increased to 904 and 990 characters, respectively. During the Tang Dynasty, the representation of Byzantium as "Fulin" gradually supplanted the usage of Daqin. Much of the description pertaining to Daqin from the Han Dynasty continued to be retained, with the added clarification that Fulin was identified as Daqin, Noteworthy records might stem from Jingxingji (经行记), authored by Du Huan(杜环), a former Tang Dynasty soldier who, after being captured by the Arabs during the Battle of Talas, reached Africa. Building upon the preceding dynasty's records, the Tang Dynasty introduced information regarding Roman military concepts and religious beliefs. Historical records show that the Tang Dynasty witnessed frequent diplomatic visits and religious exchanges with Fulin. This period marked a notable peak in the richness of historical materials documenting the cultural interactions between East and West, surpassing even the level achieved during the Han Dynasty. Owing to the flourishing stability of the Tang Dynasty and its close relations with the Western Regions.

29/06/2023

【The Origins of Rome-related Content in Chinese Sources】
Authur：Xizhi LIU（刘西沚）
Throughout ten officially recognized Chinese histories, from the emergence of the term Daqin to the prevalence of the name Fulin. Official histories are compiled and accepted by the imperial court, written by contemporary scholars, and recognized by the government. They contain a wealth of substantive content, clear formats, and meticulous approaches to selecting material. They represent the prevailing understanding of historical events during that particular era. To explore the characteristics of Rome-related content recorded in the Chinese official histories across different dynasties by reviewing historical documents referencing Daqin and Fulin.

In summary, the transmission of information regarding Rome to China was primarily through three methods: 1) Envoys who had successfully completed their missions and returned from the Western regions conveyed their findings through official reports.[ Throughout history, individuals and delegations were sent on political and diplomatic missions to unite with other ethnic groups against common enemies, such as the Xiongnu. Notable examples include Gan Ying in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD; And Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus' embassy arrived in China in 166 AD; In addition, officials like Peiju, who oversaw market trade in Zhangye City, were stationed in the Western Regions. Through interviews with merchants, Peiju collected information on the geography, names, customs, clothing, products, and other materials from 44 countries, which were compiled into a book with maps. These officials and envoys brought back reports of their observations and experiences in the Western Regions.] 2) Roman missions and merchants, who had undertaken journeys to China, disseminated their knowledge through oral communication.[ For instance, we will encounter the self-proclaimed Roman merchant Qin Lun‘s case in the subsequent passage. He asserted that his group arrived by ship from the South Sea and entered the Chinese region through Vietnam. Qin Lun received the hospitality of Sun Quan, the ruler of the Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period, and eventually resided in China for more than a decade before departing.] 3) hearsay obtained from other Western individuals or travelers from South Asia.[ Accounts from travelers from other regions, such as the Korean monk Hui Chao (慧超) who embarked on a pilgrimage to the five Indian states between 723 and 727.] All the pieces of information related to the Western Regions were diligently documented in dynastic official histories.

27/06/2023

【Rome according to the Chinese Official Histories from Han through Tang】
Authur：Xizhi LIU（刘西沚）
China and Rome were geographically situated at opposite ends of the Eurasian continent. Ancient Chinese historical sources regarded Rome as the westernmost edge of the known world, leading to some vague or stereotypical cognitions and Utopian longing for Rome. The Chinese descriptions of Rome-related contents sometimes portrayed it as another "China" in the Western world. This depiction encompassed both the external representation of Roman history and culture, as well as the interpretation of Rome based on Chinese historical and cultural inheritance. Throughout this process, the Chinese continuously constructed their understanding of Rome, occasionally drawing upon imagination and fictional elements. Interestingly, the ancient Chinese referred to Rome as Daqin (大秦literally meaning "the Great Qin State," which refers to the first unified and centralized multi-ethnic Chinese feudal state), which embodies the captivating imagination associated with this distant overseas power during that era.

In Chinese sources, the Roman territory became known as Daqin (大秦) started during the Han Dynasty and directly associated Daqin with the later Fulin (拂菻) frequently used during around the Tang Dynasty, which been identified as referring to the Byzantine Empire. Traditionally, the Han and Tang Dynasties are considered the two most prominent periods in ancient Chinese history, characterized by unifying multiple ethnicities and maintaining long rule over vast territories. This paper aims to explore the depiction of Rome in official Chinese historical sources, examining how Rome-related content is portrayed and shedding light on how the Chinese perceived Rome from Daqin (Roman Empire) to Fulin (Eastern Roman Empire).Daqin