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The Astro Journals, New York, NY (2025)

04/26/2025

Water may be more accessible on the Moon than previously believed, thanks to a natural process driven by the Sun. A recent experiment suggests that particles in the solar wind may help produce and replenish water on the lunar surface.

Unlike Earth, the Moon does not have a magnetic field to protect it. As a result, its surface is constantly bombarded by energetic particles from the Sun, known as the solar wind. For years, scientists have suspected that these particles play a role in creating the basic ingredients of water on the Moon.

The solar wind is made up mostly of positively charged hydrogen ions. When these ions reach the Moon, they interact with electrons in the lunar soil, forming neutral hydrogen atoms. These atoms can then move through the Moon’s dusty surface and combine with oxygen to form hydroxyl and water molecules. These molecules are often found in the Moon’s permanently shadowed polar regions, where they are less likely to evaporate.

However, scientists were still unsure whether this process could happen repeatedly over time. To find out, NASA researcher Li Hsia Yeo and her team conducted a lab experiment using two samples of lunar soil collected during the Apollo 17 mission. One sample came from a trench called Wessex Cleft, and the other was taken from the rim of a crater in the South Massif region.

To prepare the samples, the team removed any Earth-based water they may have absorbed over the years by baking them in a vacuum furnace. Then, using a specially designed setup that included a vacuum chamber and a miniature particle accelerator, the team exposed the samples to hydrogen ions to simulate solar wind conditions.

"It took a long time and many iterations to design the apparatus components and get them all to fit inside," said Jason McLain, a research scientist at NASA who co-led the experiment. "But it was worth it, because once we eliminated all possible sources of contamination, we learned that this decades-old idea about the solar wind turns out to be true."

The team found that after exposure to the simulated solar wind, the samples showed a drop in the infrared light signal near three microns — a wavelength where water typically absorbs energy. This confirmed the formation of hydroxyl and water molecules on the surface.

To test the sustainability of this water, the scientists then heated the samples to typical lunar daytime temperatures of about 260 degrees Fahrenheit (126 degrees Celsius). This caused the water-related signals to decrease. But after cooling the samples and exposing them to the hydrogen ions again, the water signatures reappeared. This cycle showed that solar wind could continually replenish small amounts of water on the Moon’s surface.

Supporting this idea, past lunar missions have detected significant levels of hydrogen gas in the Moon’s thin atmosphere. Scientists believe this gas forms when solar-wind-driven heating helps hydrogen atoms combine and escape into space. Interestingly, this same process leaves behind free oxygen atoms, which can bond with new hydrogen atoms, preparing the Moon’s surface for more water creation.

These findings are important for future lunar missions. Water is essential for life support systems and can also be used to create fuel for rockets. Understanding how water forms and is sustained on the Moon could be key to long-term exploration and habitation.

"The exciting thing here is that with only lunar soil and a basic ingredient from the sun — which is always spitting out hydrogen — there's a possibility of creating water," Yeo said. "That's incredible to think about."

Source: space.com

04/25/2025

Mars, often called the Red Planet, is dry and dusty today, a harsh and lifeless world. But scientists believe it wasn’t always this way. In fact, a growing body of research suggests that Mars once had a much warmer and wetter climate, possibly with lakes, rivers, and even rainfall and snowfall.

This idea is supported by the planet’s surface features. Deep valleys, winding channels, and ancient lakebeds hint that water once flowed across Mars. A recent study led by researchers at the California Institute of Technology adds new evidence to this theory, suggesting that rain and snow may have shaped the Martian landscape billions of years ago.

However, there’s still a major mystery: Where did all that water come from? Most climate models predict that early Mars was far too cold for liquid water to exist on its surface. This contradiction has puzzled scientists for years.

“It’s very hard to make any kind of conclusive statement,” said Amanda Steckel, the study’s lead author and a postdoctoral researcher in planetary sciences. “But we see these valleys starting at a wide range of elevations. It’s hard to explain that with just ice.”

To explore this, the team used computer models originally developed for studying Earth’s climate to simulate conditions on Mars during a period known as the Noachian epoch, about 4 billion years ago. This was a time when water likely played a major role in shaping the planet’s surface.

They focused on Mars’ equatorial regions, where large networks of channels stretch from highland areas and drain into low-lying basins, some possibly once filled with water. NASA’s Perseverance rover is currently exploring one of these locations, Jezero Crater, which was likely an ancient lakebed fed by a powerful river.

“You’d need meters of flowing water to carry and deposit the large boulders seen in Jezero,” said Brian Hynek, a co-author of the study and researcher at the University of Colorado Boulder.

Interestingly, some features on Mars closely resemble landscapes here on Earth. “You can look at satellite images of Utah and see the similarities,” Steckel added.

The team tested two main scenarios: one where Mars had a warm wet climate with rainfall, and another where it was cold and dry with valleys formed by melting ice at the edge of a large ice cap. Each model created different patterns of valleys.

The ice melt model produced valleys mostly at higher elevations, consistent with where ice would be. But the warm and wet model showed valleys forming across a much wider range of altitudes, closely matching what scientists observe on Mars today.

“Water from melting ice starts carving valleys only in a narrow range of heights,” Steckel explained. “But if rain falls across the land, valleys can start forming almost anywhere.”

This suggests that widespread precipitation, possibly including rain and snow, helped shape Mars’ valleys, meaning the planet may have once had a climate warm enough to support these conditions.

The big question remains: How did Mars stay warm enough? Scientists don’t yet have a clear answer, but the study provides important clues and opens the door for more research.

Hynek believes that studying Mars can also teach us about Earth’s own past. “Once water stopped flowing, Mars essentially froze in time,” he said. “It may still look a lot like Earth did over 3.5 billion years ago.”

The study was published on April 21 in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets.

Source: space.com

04/25/2025

Einstein’s Theory Helps Astronomers Spot Distant Super-Earths Using Global Telescope Network

Astronomers are using a powerful telescope network called KMTNet to uncover distant planets — and it's all thanks to a prediction made by Albert Einstein over a century ago.

The Korea Microlensing Telescope Network, or KMTNet, is made up of three telescopes located in Chile, South Africa, and Australia. Because these sites are spread across different time zones, astronomers can observe the southern night sky continuously, without interruptions. This setup has helped scientists discover planets that orbit their stars at wide distances, much like how Saturn orbits the sun.

One recent discovery, led by Jennifer Yee and her team, found a small planet orbiting far from its host star — something that used to be very difficult to detect. “This discovery wasn’t a surprise because KMTNet was built for this purpose,” said Yee. “But it’s exciting because it proves the system can routinely find smaller planets, which is key to understanding how planets form and how common they are.”

KMTNet works using a technique called gravitational microlensing, which is based on Einstein’s theory of general relativity. According to the theory, massive objects like stars or planets can bend and magnify the light of a more distant background star if they pass in front of it — kind of like a natural magnifying glass in space. This rare effect, known as microlensing, can reveal the presence of planets that we might not see otherwise.

“It’s a funny coincidence of physics,” Yee explained. “Microlensing works best near what’s called the Einstein radius — a key angle that depends on the mass of the planet, its distance, and the distance to the background star.” This idea helped kick off the first planet-hunting microlensing searches in the 1990s.

Now, Yee’s team is expanding their search. They’re analyzing even more years of KMTNet data and improving how they process it to detect even weaker signals from hidden planets. Their goal is to build a bigger sample of these distant super-Earths and learn more about the different types of planets that exist in our galaxy.

Source: space.com

04/24/2025

On April 24, 1970, China achieved a major milestone in space exploration with the successful launch of its first satellite, D**g Fang Hong 1. This event marked China’s entry into the global space race and solidified its position as a significant player in the field of space exploration.

D**g Fang Hong 1, which translates to "The East is Red," was launched aboard a Long March 1 rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in the Gobi Desert. The satellite, weighing just over 173 kilograms, was equipped with a rudimentary radio transmitter designed to broadcast Chinese national songs and messages in a symbolic gesture of China's growing technological prowess.

The successful launch of D**g Fang Hong 1 was a turning point in China’s space ambitions, showcasing the country’s ability to develop and launch space technology. The achievement was not only a significant technical accomplishment but also a symbol of China's determination to establish itself as a spacefaring nation.

With this launch, China joined the ranks of the Soviet Union and the United States as one of the few countries capable of sending satellites into orbit. The satellite's primary mission was to demonstrate China’s technological capabilities and to provide a platform for further advancements in space exploration.

This event set the stage for China’s subsequent space endeavors, leading to the development of more advanced satellite systems, human spaceflight programs, and ambitious plans for lunar exploration. Today, China continues to make significant strides in space, with its space program growing rapidly, marked by lunar missions, space station projects, and deep space exploration ambitions.

April 24, 1970, will forever be remembered as a defining moment in China’s space history, representing the start of its journey to becoming a global leader in space exploration.

Source: space.com

04/24/2025

South Korea has successfully launched its fourth spy satellite into orbit, marking a significant milestone in the nation's efforts to enhance its military surveillance capabilities. The satellite, launched aboard SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket during a rideshare mission, will play a crucial role in South Korea's defense strategy, particularly in monitoring North Korean activities.

This state-of-the-art satellite, equipped with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technology, is designed to capture high-resolution imagery, regardless of weather conditions. This capability allows South Korea to maintain constant surveillance, even in challenging environments, and gather valuable intelligence on potential threats. The satellite is a key component of South Korea’s growing space program, which aims to strengthen its independent defense capabilities and reduce reliance on other nations for critical intelligence.

The launch, which took place from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida, is part of South Korea’s broader strategy to build a constellation of reconnaissance satellites. This constellation will enable near-continuous monitoring of North Korea’s military activities, with updates expected every two hours once the full system is operational.

This new satellite joins South Korea’s existing reconnaissance satellites and represents a major step forward in the nation’s "425 Project," which is focused on creating a robust space-based surveillance system. Once fully deployed, the system will provide real-time intelligence, contributing to South Korea’s “kill chain” defense capabilities, which allow for rapid response to potential threats.

The partnership with SpaceX further underscores the growing trend of international collaboration in space exploration. By utilizing SpaceX's reliable and cost-effective launch services, South Korea has been able to accelerate its space program and ensure the timely deployment of critical defense technology.

As the satellite successfully communicated with an overseas ground station after launch, it confirmed its operational status, marking another success for South Korea’s space ambitions. With the addition of this satellite, South Korea is well on its way to achieving a comprehensive, self-reliant satellite surveillance system, enhancing its ability to safeguard national security.

This achievement reflects the increasing importance of space technology in modern defense strategies, with countries around the world investing heavily in space-based assets to strengthen their security frameworks. As South Korea continues to expand its space capabilities, it remains focused on ensuring that its defense systems stay ahead of evolving threats in an increasingly complex geopolitical landscape.

Source: space.com

04/23/2025

In an impressive display of efficiency, SpaceX has successfully launched three rockets from three different pads in just under 37 hours. This achievement highlights the company’s growing expertise in rapid rocket launches and its ability to manage multiple missions at once.

The launches took place across two locations in Florida—Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center. This not only shows SpaceX’s ability to operate on multiple fronts, but also marks a significant milestone in the company’s mission to revolutionize space travel.

The first launch occurred at 7:00 PM ET, with the next two rockets following in quick succession within less than 24 hours. Each rocket carried important payloads, ranging from communication satellites to scientific instruments, emphasizing SpaceX's vital role in the global space industry.

One of the key factors enabling such a rapid series of launches is SpaceX’s reusable rocket technology. By reusing rocket stages and minimizing the need for completely new hardware, SpaceX has been able to cut down on both costs and time between launches, creating a model for more frequent space missions.

Completing three launches in less than 37 hours marks a new level of efficiency in space exploration. SpaceX’s ability to handle multiple complex missions in such a short time frame is a clear demonstration of its growing capabilities and logistical expertise.

This achievement also signals a shift in the space industry. With increasing demand for satellite launches, space research, and defense-related missions, the ability to quickly and reliably send rockets into space is becoming more crucial. SpaceX is leading the charge in making space access more affordable and frequent, paving the way for future innovations.

As SpaceX continues to advance its technology and increase its launch capacity, the possibilities seem endless. The success of these back-to-back launches suggests that future missions, including manned spaceflights and deep space exploration, could become a reality sooner than expected.

In summary, SpaceX’s ability to launch three rockets in such a short period of time highlights its continued commitment to pushing the boundaries of space exploration. With every successful mission, the company continues to redefine what’s possible in the world of space technology.

Source: space.com

04/23/2025

In a breakthrough achievement, a revolutionary new 3D microscope, named the Extant Life Volumetric Imaging System or ELVIS, has reached the International Space Station (ISS) to examine how microorganisms adjust and survive in the harsh conditions of space. Developed by a team of scientists at Portland State University (PSU) in collaboration with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, this innovative technology marks a milestone in the study of astrobiology and space exploration.

The ELVIS microscope uses a novel volumetric imaging technique that employs holographic technology to generate precise, three-dimensional images of cells and microbes. Unlike traditional microscopes that offer only two-dimensional views, ELVIS provides a true 3D perspective of living organisms. This enables scientists to study the complex structure and behavior of cells in microgravity, a condition only found aboard the ISS, offering new and unprecedented insights into how life functions in space.

The primary goal of the ELVIS mission is to investigate two resilient Earth-based life forms: *Euglena gracilis*, a versatile microalga, and *Colwellia psychrerythraea*, a bacterium that thrives in Earth's freezing ocean waters. These organisms were selected for their ability to endure extreme environments, making them ideal subjects for studying how life might survive in similar harsh conditions, like those beneath the frozen surfaces of moons such as Europa (a moon of Jupiter) and Enceladus (a moon of Saturn). Astrobiologists believe that studying these organisms’ adaptations could provide crucial insights into the possibility of life on other planets and moons. As humanity advances in space exploration, data from ELVIS could significantly enhance our understanding of life's resilience, informing future missions aimed at discovering life beyond Earth.

Beyond its space exploration applications, the ELVIS mission could also have valuable implications for biomedical and microbiological research on Earth. The knowledge gained from observing how organisms behave in space could improve our understanding of human health, especially in conditions that simulate the challenges of space travel, such as muscle atrophy and weakened immune systems due to microgravity.

By utilizing the ISS National Laboratory, ELVIS is positioned to provide valuable data that will not only deepen our understanding of life beyond Earth but also aid in developing advanced technologies for future space missions and enhance health and environmental sciences here on Earth.

As humanity ventures further into the cosmos, ELVIS represents a major leap in our quest to understand life’s resilience in the universe and to prepare for the challenges of living and exploring beyond our planet. The arrival of this cutting-edge 3D microscope at the ISS opens up exciting new research opportunities that will benefit both space science and our knowledge of life on Earth.

Source: space.com

04/23/2025

Saturn's largest moon, Titan, has long fascinated scientists with its rivers and seas of liquid methane. But a new study has raised an unexpected mystery — the apparent absence of river deltas.

On Earth, rivers typically form deltas when they flow into larger bodies of water, leaving behind sediment that creates rich, wetland ecosystems. Titan, however, seems to break that rule. Despite being the only other known world in our solar system with surface liquid, Titan shows no clear signs of these sediment-filled formations.

"We take it for granted that if you have rivers and sediments, you get deltas," said Sam Birch, assistant professor in Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University. "But Titan is weird. It is a playground for studying processes we thought we understood."

Deltas are not only geological markers. They also preserve valuable clues about a planet’s past. Sediment within them can reveal insights into climate, tectonics, and possibly even the ingredients for life. That is why researchers were particularly eager to find them on Titan.

"It is kind of disappointing as a geomorphologist, because deltas should preserve so much of Titan's history," Birch added.

Evidence for flowing methane on Titan’s surface came from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, which used synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to peer through the moon’s thick atmosphere. It detected channels and large flat regions consistent with vast methane seas. But shallow methane is mostly transparent to SAR, making it difficult to clearly observe the coastline and seabed.

To tackle this challenge, Birch's team created a computer model that simulated SAR images of Earth but with Earth’s water replaced by Titan’s methane. These simulations helped the scientists better interpret Titan’s radar data by comparing it with known landscapes on Earth.

The results were promising. Their Earth-based SAR images clearly displayed large deltas and familiar coastal features. Yet, when applied to Titan’s data, the same clarity did not appear. In fact, the Cassini radar revealed even more mysteries such as unexplained pits within Titan’s lakes and deep channels on the sea floor that defy simple explanations.

"This is really not what we expected," Birch said. "But Titan does this to us a lot. I think that is what makes it such an engaging place to study."

As scientists continue to unravel Titan’s geological puzzles, one thing remains certain: the moon still holds many secrets beneath its hazy orange skies.

Source: space.com

04/22/2025

NASA's Lucy spacecraft, currently on a 12-year mission to study Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids, has captured its first detailed close-up of asteroid 52246 Donaldjohanson, revealing an unexpectedly complex geological structure.

Launched in 2021, Lucy is en route to explore the Trojan asteroids that share Jupiter’s orbit. These ancient remnants from the early solar system are believed to hold clues about planetary formation. As part of its journey, Lucy is conducting several trial flybys to refine its trajectory and instruments. On April 20, the spacecraft flew just 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) from Donaldjohanson, a three-mile-wide asteroid named after the co-discoverer of the famous Lucy hominid fossil.

Approach images showed fluctuating brightness, hinting that the asteroid might be either rotating slowly or shaped irregularly. Close-up visuals confirmed both. Donaldjohanson appears to be a contact binary, meaning it was once two smaller bodies that have fused together, forming a distinct neck between twin lobes.

“Donaldjohanson has strikingly complicated geology,” said Hal Levison, principal investigator for Lucy at the Southwest Research Institute. “These structures can teach us a lot about how planets and smaller bodies formed through collisions and accretion.”

Although the asteroid’s rotation period is extremely slow, taking over three years to complete a spin, its apparent movement in the images is due to Lucy’s high-speed flyby at 13.4 kilometers per second (8.3 miles per second). Preliminary analysis suggests the asteroid is larger than expected, measuring roughly 5 miles (8 kilometers) in length and 2 miles (3.5 kilometers) across at its widest point.

Lucy’s imaging instruments couldn’t capture the entire object in a single frame, so scientists expect to piece together a more complete view once all the data is fully transmitted. This process may take up to a week.

“These early images are already showcasing Lucy’s potential as a powerhouse of discovery,” said Tom Statler, Lucy’s program scientist at NASA. “Once we reach the Trojan asteroids, we could gain an entirely new perspective on the early solar system.”

With this flyby complete, Lucy now continues its long cruise toward the main event. Its first encounter with a Jupiter Trojan, Eurybates and its small moon Queta, is scheduled for August 2027.

Source: space.com

04/22/2025

The U.S. Space Force is taking a significant step toward preparing for potential conflict beyond Earth by releasing an official framework that outlines how it will train and conduct operations in space. This strategic document, known as the "Space Warfighting Doctrine," formalizes how the military branch approaches orbital combat and space superiority.

For years, the Space Force has been working toward building a combat-ready presence in Earth’s orbit. It has called on American industries to develop advanced spacecraft and counterspace technologies, and has strengthened partnerships with allied nations to promote responsible behavior in space. Now, with the release of this doctrine, the branch has a structured guide to help prepare units—known as Guardians—for the possibility of space-based warfare.

According to the Space Force, the new doctrine “establishes a common lexicon for counterspace operations” and describes “a range of responsible offensive and defensive actions Guardians may employ to maintain control of space.” These measures are designed to ensure the continued success and security of U.S. military and national interests in orbit.

The concept of space superiority, much like air superiority in traditional warfare, is central to the doctrine. It encompasses the ability to protect one’s own satellites and space assets while potentially denying adversaries the use of theirs. Achieving this could involve anything from disrupting enemy systems to physically targeting spacecraft if necessary.

However, the nature of combat in space presents unique challenges. The document acknowledges that operations in orbit will rely heavily on automation, given the rapid speeds and vast distances involved. Human decision-making may be filtered or minimized in real-time scenarios, and the framework stresses the importance of understanding when and how human operators should engage with automated systems.

The Space Force identifies three primary domains of space warfare: orbital, electromagnetic, and cyber. Orbital warfare includes direct engagements between spacecraft; electromagnetic warfare focuses on dominating the radiofrequency spectrum, such as through jamming communications; and cyber warfare targets adversaries' digital infrastructure and networks that control space assets.

While the document provides detailed principles, it also highlights the uncertainty of future conflicts. “There are no set rules for fighting a war in space—or anywhere, for that matter,” the doctrine notes. Instead, Guardians are encouraged to develop a deep understanding of spacepower and, when needed, apply creative thinking to meet the demands of an evolving battlefield.

This doctrine marks a milestone in the Space Force’s development as it transitions from a support entity into a fully capable, strategic branch prepared to defend U.S. interests in the most uncharted of military domains.

Source: space.com

04/21/2025

A new theory suggests that ultralight dark matter could have played a crucial role in forming the universe’s first supermassive black holes—those that somehow grew to billions of times the mass of the sun within just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.

This proposal, put forward in a recent preprint by Hao Jiao of McGill University and colleagues, offers an explanation for one of cosmology’s biggest puzzles: how such enormous black holes could form so quickly when the known processes for black hole growth seem too slow. Traditionally, black holes are created when massive stars reach the end of their life cycles and collapse. However, these events produce black holes that are relatively small—just a few dozen times the mass of the sun. Even accounting for accretion over time, it’s hard to see how they could reach supermassive status so early.

One alternative that's been explored is the idea of direct collapse. This occurs when massive clouds of gas collapse directly into black holes without first forming stars. But here’s the catch: collapsing clouds typically produce molecular hydrogen, which acts as an efficient coolant and causes the gas to fragment, forming clusters of stars instead of collapsing into a single, large black hole. The only way to stop this cooling process is with intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which wasn't available in the early universe before the first stars existed.

This is where dark matter may come in. The research team focused on a specific kind called ultralight dark matter, which some models predict could be billions of times lighter than the neutrino. At such low masses, dark matter behaves more like a smooth, quantum fluid than a swarm of particles. This kind of dark matter can form large-scale waves, creating pockets of higher density across space. As these waves interact with clouds of gas, they could set off a feedback loop known as resonance, which keeps amplifying the density and energy in those regions.

What’s more, ultralight dark matter might be able to convert into photons—particles of light. If that’s the case, then in these high-density regions, dark matter could have generated low-energy light even before the first stars appeared. Though these photons alone wouldn’t be powerful enough to break molecular hydrogen apart, the researchers suggest that a process called thermalization could have taken over from there. Thermalization involves heating the gas with these low-energy photons, which would then emit a wider range of radiation, including the UV light needed to prevent fragmentation. Another possibility is that turbulence within the gas clouds helped boost the energy levels, allowing the collapse process to continue.

Despite the fact that this work is still in early stages and hasn’t yet been peer-reviewed, the researchers were able to model the early universe in a way that respected current limits on dark matter mass and energy efficiency—and still ended up with enough UV radiation to make the process work. That means clouds of gas could remain warm and intact long enough to collapse directly into the seeds of supermassive black holes.

While the theory remains speculative, it introduces a new angle in the search for answers about how the universe’s largest black holes formed so quickly. It also deepens the mystery—and potential importance—of dark matter in shaping cosmic history. Further simulations and observational tests will be needed to confirm whether ultralight dark matter really played this hidden but powerful role in the early days of the cosmos.

Source: space.com

The Astro Journals

04/26/2025

04/25/2025

04/25/2025

04/24/2025

04/24/2025

04/23/2025

04/23/2025

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04/22/2025

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